In this paper, we examine how the attributes of female and racial minority directors differ from those of white males. We track a sample of white male, white female, African-American female and African-American male directors who serve on Fortune 1000 boards and find differences in occupational background, education, and patterns of board affiliation. Female and African-American directors are more likely to come from non-business backgrounds, are more likely to hold advanced degrees, and join multiple boards at a faster rate than white male directors.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alchian, A.1950. Uncertainty, evolution, and economic theory. Journal of Political Economy, 58: 211-221.
2.
Becker, G.1964. Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education. New York: Columbia University Press.
3.
Berlyne, D.1960. Conflict, arousal and curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill.
4.
Bibb, R., & Form, W.1977. The effects of industrial, occupational, and sex stratification on the wages of blue collar markets. Social Forces, 55: 975-996.
5.
Biernat, M., & Kobrynowicz, D.1997. Gender-and race-based standards of competence: Lower minimum standards but higher ability standards for devalued groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72: 544-557.
6.
Biernat, M., & Vescio, T.1993. Categorization and stereotyping: Effects of group context on memory and social judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29: 166-202.
7.
Bilmoria, D., & Piderit, S.1994. Board committee membership: Effects of sex-based bias. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 1453-1477.
8.
Boyd, B.1990. Corporate linkages and organizational environment: A test of the resource-dependence model. Strategic Management Journal, 11: 419-430.
9.
Briggs, M., & Lassiter, G. D.1994. More evidence for the robustness of salience effects. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 9: 171-180.
10.
Cassidy, M., & Warren, B.1991. Status consistency and work satisfaction among professional and managerial women and men. Gender and Society, 5: 193-206.
11.
Cox, T., Lobel, S., & McLeod, P.1991. Effects of ethnic group cultural differences on cooperative and competitive behavior on a group task. Academy of Management Journal, 34: 827-847.
12.
Cox, T., & Nkomo, S.1991. A race and gender group analysis of the early career experience of MBAs. Work and Occupations, 18: 431-446.
13.
Daily, C., Certo, S., & Dalton, D.1999. A decade of corporate women: Some progress in the boardroom, none in the executive suite. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 93-99.
14.
Daily, C., & Dalton, D.1994. Corporate governance and the bankrupt firm: An empirical assessment. Strategic Management Journal, 15: 643-654.
15.
Directorship. 1999. Significant data for directors 1999: Board policies and governance trends. Greenwich, CT: Directorship Inc.
16.
Dyer, J., & Singh, H.1998. The relational view: Cooperative strategy and sources of interorganizational competitive advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23: 660-679.
17.
Ely, R.1994. The effects of organizational demographics and social identity on relationships among professional women. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39: 203-238.
18.
Foddy, M., & Smithson, M.1989. Fuzzy sets and double standards: Modeling the process of ability inference. In J. Berger, M. Zelditch, & B. Anderson (Eds.), Sociological theories in progress: New formulations: 73-99. London: Sage.
19.
Foschi, M.1992. Gender and double standards for competence. In C. L. Ridgeway (Ed.), Gender, interaction and inequality: 181-207. New York: Springer-Verlag.
20.
Gales, L., & Kesner, I.1994. An analysis of board of director size and composition in bankrupt organizations. Journal of Business Research, 30: 271-282.
21.
Granovetter, M.1973. The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78: 1360-1380.
22.
Greenhaus, J., Parasuraman, S., & Wormley, W.1990. Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance, and career outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 33: 64-86.
23.
Gulati, R.1998. Alliances and networks. Strategic Management Journal, 19: 293-317.
24.
Hambrick, D., & Mason, P.1984. Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9: 193-206.
25.
Harrigan, K.1981. Numbers and positions of women elected to corporate boards. Academy of Management Journal, 24: 619-625.
26.
Heilman, M., Block, C., Martell, R., & Simon, M.1989. Has anything changed? Current characterizations of men, women, and managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74: 935-942.
27.
Hillman, A., Cannella, A., & Paetzold, R.2000. The resource-dependence role of corporate directors: Strategic adaptation of board composition in response to environmental change. Journal of Management Studies, 37: 235-255.
28.
Johnson, J., Daily, C., & Ellstrand, A.1996. Boards of directors: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 22: 409-438.
29.
Judge, T., Cable, D., Boudreau, J., & Bretz, R.1995. An empirical examination of the predictors of executive career success. Personnel Psychology, 48: 485-519.
30.
Kanter, R.1977. Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
31.
Kanter, R.1989. Careers and the wealth of nations: A macro-perspective on the structure and implications of career forms. In M. Arthur, D. Hall, & B. Lawrence (Eds.), Handbook of career theory: 506-522. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
32.
Kesner, I.1988. Directors’ characteristics and committee membership: An investigation of type, occupation, tenure and gender. Academy of Management Journal, 31: 66-84.
33.
KLD. 1998. Kinder, Lydenberg and domini social performance database.
34.
Korn-Ferry. 1992. CEOs are still the ‘ideal’ choice. Directors & Boards: 70-73.
35.
Kosnik, R.1990. The effects of board demography and directors’ incentives on corporate greenmail decisions. Academy of Management Journal, 33: 129-150.
36.
Lassiter, G., & Irvine, A.1986. Videotaped confessions: The impact of camera point of view on judgments of coercion. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16: 268-276.
37.
Lassiter, G., Slaw, R., Briggs, M., & Scanlon, C.1992. The potential for bias in videotaped confessions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22: 1838-1851.
38.
Lublin, J.1997. Competition for minority directors heats up. Wall Street Journal: B1-B10.
39.
McArthur, L.1981. What grabs you? The role of attention in impression formation and causal attribution. In E. Higgins, C. Herman, & M. Zanna (Eds.), Social cognition: The Ontario symposium: Vol. 1, 201-241. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
40.
Morrison, A., & von Glinow, M.1990. Women and minorities in management. American Psychologist, 45: 200-208.
41.
Pearce, J., & Zahra, S.1992. Board composition from a strategic contingency perspective. Journal of Management Studies, 29: 411-438.
42.
Pfeffer, J.1972. Size and composition of corporate boards of directors. Administrative Science Quarterly, 21: 218-228.
43.
Pfeffer, J.1983. Organizational demography. In L. Cummings & B. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior: 299-357. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
44.
Pfeffer, J., & Ross, J.1982. The effects of marriage and a working life on occupational and wage attainment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 27: 66-80.
45.
Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G.1978. The external control of organizations: A resource-dependence perspective. New York: Harper & Row.
46.
Powell, W.1990. Neither market nor hierarchy: Network forms of organization. In L. Cummings & B. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior: Vol. 12, 295-336. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
47.
Sing, J., House, R., & Tucker, D.1986. Organizational change and organizational mortality. Administrative Science Quarterly, 32: 367-386.
48.
Taylor, S., & Fiske, S.1978. Salience, attention, and attribution: Top of the head phenomena. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology: Vol. 11, 249-288. New York: Academic Press.
49.
Taylor, S., Fiske, S., Etcoff, N., & Ruderman, A.1978. The categorical and contextual bases of personal memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36: 778-793.
50.
Thompson, J.1967. Organizations in action. New York: McGraw-Hill.
51.
Thorelli, H.1986. Networks: Between markets and hierarchies. Strategic Management Journal, 7: 37-51.
52.
Useem, M.1993. The inner circle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
53.
Watson, W., Kumar, K., & Michaelson, L.1993. Cultural diversity’s impact on interaction process and performance: Comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 35: 590-602.
54.
Westphal, J., & Zajac, E.1997. Defections from the inner circle: Social exchange, reciprocity and the diffusions of board independence in US corporations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42: 161-183.
55.
Zahra, S., & Pearce, J.1989. Boards of directors and corporate financial performance: A review and integrative model. Journal of Management, 15: 291-334.