Guidelines for the Provision and Assessment of Nutrition Support Therapy in the Adult Critically Ill Patient:

Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, et al; Surviving Sepsis Campaign Management Guidelines Committee. Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004 ;32:858 -873.

Martindale RG, Maerz LL. Management of perioperative nutrition support. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2006 ;12:290 -294.

Raguso CA, Dupertuis YM, Pichard C. The role of visceral proteins in the nutritional assessment of intensive care unit patients. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2003;6:211 -216.

Kudsk KA. Current aspects of mucosal immunology and its influence by nutrition. Am J Surg. 2002 ;183:390 -398.

Jabbar A, Chang WK, Dryden GW, McClave SA. Gut immunology and the differential response to feeding and starvation. Nutr Clin Pract. 2003;18:461 -482.

Kang W, Kudsk KA. Is there evidence that the gut contributes to mucosal immunity in humans? JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2007 ;31:246 -258.

Kang W, Gomez FE, Lan J, Sano Y, Ueno C, Kudsk KA. Parenteral nutrition impairs gut-associated lymphoid tissue and mucosal immunity by reducing lymphotoxin beta receptor expression. Ann Surg. 2006 ;244:392 -399.

Windsor AC, Kanwar S, Li AG, et al. Compared with parenteral nutrition, enteral feeding attenuates the acute phase response and improves disease severity in acute pancreatitis. Gut. 1998 ;42:431 -435.

Ammori BJ, Leeder PC, King RF, et al. Early increase in intestinal permeability in patients with severe acute pancreatitis: correlation with endotoxemia, organ failure, and mortality. J Gastrointest Surg. 1999 ;3:252 -262.

Lewis SJ, Egger M, Sylvester PA, et al. Early enteral feeding versus “nil by mouth” after gastrointestinal surgery: systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled studies. Br Med J. 2001 ;323:1 -5.

Schroeder D, Gillanders L, Mahr K, Hill GL. Effects of immediate postoperative enteral nutrition on body composition, muscle function, and wound healing. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1991 ;15:376 -383.

Sagar S, Harland P, Shields R. Early postoperative feeding with elemental diet. Br Med J. 1979 ;1:293 -295.

Carr CS, Ling KD, Boulos P, Singer M. Randomised trial of safety and efficacy of immediate postoperative enteral feeding in patients undergoing gastrointestinal resection. BMJ. 1996 ;12:869 -871.

Beier-Holgersen R, Boesby S. Influence of postoperative enteral nutrition on postsurgical infections. Gut. 1996 ;39:833 -835.

Heslin MJ, Latkany L, Leung D, et al. A prospective, randomized trial of early enteral feeding after resection of upper gastrointestinal malignancy. Ann Surg. 1997 ;226:567 -577.

Watters JM, Kirkpatrick SM, Norris SB, Shamji FM, Wells GA. Immediate postoperative enteral feeding results in impaired respiratory mechanics and decreased mobility. Ann Surg. 1997 ;226:369 -377.

McClave SA, Chang WK, Dhaliwal R, Heyland DK. Nutrition support in acute pancreatitis: a systematic review of the literature. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2006;30:143 -156.

Pupelis G, Austrums E, Jansone A, Sprucs R, Wehbi H. Randomised trial of safety and efficacy of postoperative enteral feeding in patients with severe pancreatitis: preliminary report. Eur J Surg. 2000 ;166:383 -387.

Pupelis G, Selga G, Austrums E, Kaminski A. Jejunal feeding, even when instituted late, improves outcomes in patients with severe pancreatitis and peritonitis. Nutrition. 2001 ;17:91 -94.

Kudsk KA, Croce MA, Fabian TC, et al. Enteral versus parenteral feeding: effects on septic morbidity after blunt and penetrating abdominal trauma. Ann Surg. 1992;215:503 -513.

Heyland DK, Dhaliwal R, Drover JW, Gramlich L, Dodek P; Canadian Critical Care Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee. Canadian clinical practice guidelines for nutrition support in mechanically ventilated, critically ill adult patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2003 ;27:355 -373.

Kalfarentzos F, Kehagias J, Mead N, Kokkinis K, Gogos CA. Enteral nutrition is superior to parenteral nutrition in severe acute pancreatitis: results of a randomized prospective trial. Br J Surg. 1997 ;84:1665 -1669.

Taylor SJ, Fettes SB, Jewkes C, Nelson RJ. Prospective, randomized, controlled trial to determine the effect of early enhanced enteral nutrition on clinical outcome in mechanically ventilated patients suffering head injury.Crit Care Med. 1999;27:2525 -2531.

Braunschweig CL, Levy P, Sheean PM, Wang X. Enteral compared with parenteral nutrition: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001 ;74:534 -542.

Simpson F, Doig GS. Parenteral vs. enteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis of trials using the intention to treat principle. Intensive Care Med. 2005 ;31:12 -23.

Gramlich L, Kichian K, Pinilla J, Rodych NJ, Dhaliwal R, Heyland DK. Does enteral nutrition compared to parenteral nutrition result in better outcomes in critically ill adult patients? A systematic review of the literature. Nutrition. 2004 ;20:843 -848.

Moore FA, Feliciano DV, Andrassy RJ, et al. Early enteral feeding, compared with parenteral, reduces postoperative septic complications: the results of a meta-analysis. Ann Surg. 1992 ;216:172 -183.

Peter JV, Moran JL, Phillips-Hughes J. A metaanalysis of treatment outcomes of early enteral versus early parenteral nutrition in hospitalized patients. Crit Care Med. 2005 ;33:213 -220.

Rapp RP, Young DB, Twyman D. The favorable effect of early parenteral feeding on survival in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg. 1983;58:906 -912.

Adams S, Dellinger EP, Wertz MJ. Enteral versus parenteral nutritional support following laparotomy for trauma: a randomized prospective trial. J Trauma. 1986;26:882 -891.

Bower RH, Talamini MA, Sax HC. Postoperative enteral vs parenteral nutrition: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Surg. 1986 ;121:1040 -1045.

Szeluga DJ, Stuart RK, Brookmeyer R, Utermohlen V, Santos GW. Nutritional support of bone marrow transplant recipients: a prospective, randomized clinical trial comparing total parenteral nutrition to an enteral feeding program. Cancer Res. 1987 ;47:3309 -3316.

Young B, Ott L, Haack D. Effect of total parenteral nutrition upon intracranial pressure in severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1987 ;67:76 -80.

Peterson VM, Moore EE, Jones TN, et al. Total enteral nutrition versus total parenteral nutrition after major torso injury: attenuation of hepatic protein reprioritization. Surgery. 1988 ;104:199 -207.

Cerra FB, McPherson JP, Konstantinides FN, Konstantinides NN, Teasley KM. Enteral nutrition does not prevent multiple organ failure syndrome (MOFS) after sepsis. Surgery. 1988 ;104:727 -733.

Greenberg GR, Fleming CR, Jeejeebhoy KN, Rosenberg IH, Sales D, Tremaine WJ. Controlled trial of bowel rest and nutritional support in the management of Crohn's disease. Gut. 1988 ;29:1309 -1315.

Moore FA, Moore EE, Jones TN, McCroskey BL, Peterson VM. TEN versus TPN following major abdominal trauma: reduced septic morbidity. J Trauma. 1989;29:916 -923.

Hamaoui E, Lefkowitz R, Olender L, et al. Enteral nutrition in the early postoperative period: a new semi-elemental formula versus total parenteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1990 ;14:501 -507.

González-Huix F, Fernández-Bañares F, Esteve-Comas M, et al. Enteral versus parenteral nutrition as adjunct therapy in acute ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1993 ;88:227 -232.

Iovinelli G, Marsili I, Varrassi G. Nutrition support after total laryngectomy. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1993 ;17:445 -448.

Kudsk KA, Minard G, Wojtysiak SL, Croce M, Fabian T, Brown RO. Visceral protein response to enteral versus parenteral nutrition and sepsis in patients with trauma. Surgery. 1994 ;116:516 -523.

Dunham CM, Frankenfield D, Belzberg H, Wiles C, Cushing B, Grant Z. Gut failure-predictor of or contributor to mortality in mechanically ventilated blunt trauma patients? J Trauma 1994 ;37:30 -34.

Borzotta AP, Pennings J, Papasadero B, et al. Enteral versus parenteral nutrition after severe closed head injury. J Trauma 1994 ;37:459 -468.

Hadfield RJ, Sinclair DG, Houldsworth PE, Evans TW. Effects of enteral and parenteral nutrition on gut mucosal permeability in the critically ill. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 ;152:1545 -1548.

Baigrie RJ, Devitt PG, Watkin DS. Enteral versus parenteral nutrition after oesophagogastric surgery: a prospective randomized comparison.Aust N Z J Surg. 1996;66:668 -670.

McClave SA, Greene LM, Snider HL, et al. Comparison of the safety of early enteral vs parenteral nutrition in mild acute pancreatitis.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1997 ;21:14 -20.

Reynolds JV, Kanwar S, Welsh FK, et al. Does the route of feeding modify gut barrier function and clinical outcome in patients after major upper gastrointestinal surgery? JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1997 ;21:196 -201.

Sand J, Luostarinen M, Matikainen M. Enteral or parenteral feeding after total gastrectomy: prospective randomised pilot study. Eur J Surg. 1997;163:761 -766.

Gianotti L, Braga M, Vignali A, et al. Effect of route of delivery and formulation of postoperative nutritional support in patients undergoing major operations for malignant neoplasms. Arch Surg. 1997 ;132:1222 -1230.

Woodcock NP, Zeigler D, Palmer MD, Buckley P, Mitchell CJ, Macfie J. Enteral versus parenteral nutrition: a pragmatic study.Nutrition. 2001;17:1 -12.

Braga M, Gianotti L, Gentilini O, Parisi V, Salis C, Di C. Early postoperative enteral nutrition improves gut oxygenation and reduces costs compared with total parenteral nutrition. Crit Care Med. 2001 ;29:242 -248.

Pacelli F, Bossola M, Papa V, et al. Enteral vs parenteral nutrition after major abdominal surgery: an even match. Arch Surg. 2001;136:933 -936.

Bozzetti F, Braga M, Gianotti L, Gavazzi C, Mariani L. Postoperative enteral versus parenteral nutrition in malnourished patients with gastrointestinal cancer: a randomised multicentre trial.Lancet. 2001;358:1487 -1492.

Oláh A, Pardavi G, Belágyi T, Nagy A, Issekutz A, Mohamed GE. Early nasojejunal feeding in acute pancreatitis is associated with a lower complication rate. Nutrition. 2002 ;18:259 -262.

Abou-Assi S, Craig K, O'Keefe SJ. Hypocaloric jejunal feeding is better than total parenteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis: results of a randomized comparative study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002 ;97:2255 -2262.

Gupta R, Patel K, Calder PC, Yaqoob P, Primrose JN, Johnson CD. A randomised clinical trial to assess the effect of total enteral and total parenteral nutritional support on metabolic, inflammatory and oxidative markers in patients with predicted severe acute pancreatitis (APACHE II ≥ 6). Pancreatology. 2003;3:406 -413.

Louie BE, Noseworthy T, Hailey D, Gramlich LM, Jacobs P, Warnock GL. Enteral or parenteral nutrition for severe pancreatitis: a randomized controlled trial and health technology assessment. Can J Surg. 2005 ;48:298 -306.

Petrov MS, Kukosh MV, Emelyanov NV. A randomized controlled trial of enteral versus parenteral feeding in patients with predicted severe acute pancreatitis shows a significant reduction in mortality and in infected pancreatic complications with total enteral nutrition. Dig Surg. 2006;23:336 -344.

Eckerwall GE, Axelsson JB, Andersson RG. Early nasogastric feeding in predicted severe acute pancreatitis: a clinical, randomized study.Ann Surg. 2006;244:959 -967.

Casas M, Mora J, Fort E, et al. Total enteral nutrition vs. total parenteral nutrition in patients with severe acute pancreatitis. Rev Esp Enferm Dig. 2007;99:264 -269.

Shirabe K, Matsumata T, Shimada M, et al. A comparison of parenteral hyperalimentation and early enteral feeding regarding systemic immunity after major hepatic resection: the results of a randomized prospective study. Hepatogastroenterology. 1997 ;44:205 -209.

Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Early enteral nutrition in acutely ill patients: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 2001 ;29:2264 -2270.

Moore EE, Jones TN. Benefits of immediate jejunostomy feeding after major abdominal trauma: a prospective, randomized study. J Trauma. 1986;26:874 -881.

Chiarelli A, Enzi G, Casadei A, Baggio B, Valerio A, Mazzoleni F. Very early nutrition supplementation in burned patients. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;51:1035 -1039.

Eyer SD, Micon LT, Konstantinides FN, et al. Early enteral feeding does not attenuate metabolic response after blunt trauma. J Trauma. 1993;34:639 -643.

Chuntrasakul C, Siltharm S, Chinswangwatanakul V, Pongprasobchai T, Chockvivatanavanit S, Bunnak A. Early nutritional support in severe traumatic patients. J Med Assoc Thai. 1996 ;79:21 -26.

Singh G, Ram RP, Khanna SK. Early post-operative enteral feeding in patients with nontraumatic intestinal perforation and peritonitis. J Am Coll Surg. 1998;187:142 -146.

Minard G, Kudsk KA, Melton S, Patton JH, Tolley EA. Early versus delayed feeding with an immune-enhancing diet in patients with severe head injuries. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2000 ;24:145 -149.

Kompan L, Vidmar G, Spindler-Vesel A, Pecar J. Is early enteral nutrition a risk factor for gastric intolerance and pneumonia? Clin Nutr. 2004;23:527 -532.

Malhotra A, Mathur AK, Gupta S. Early enteral nutrition after surgical treatment of gut perforations: a prospective randomised study.J Postgrad Med. 2004;50:102 -106.

Peck MD, Kessler M, Cairns BA, Chang YH, Ivanova A, Schooler W. Early enteral nutrition does not decrease hypermetabolism associated with burn injury. J Trauma. 2004;57:1143 -1149.

Dvorak MF, Noonan VK, Belanger L, et al. Early versus late enteral feeding in patients with acute cervical spinal cord injury: a pilot study.Spine. 2004;29:E175 -E180.

McClave SA, Chang WK. Feeding the hypotensive patient: does enteral feeding precipitate or protect against ischemic bowel? Nutr Clin Pract. 2003;18:279 -284.

Melis M, Fichera A, Ferguson MK. Bowel necrosis associated with early jejunal tube feeding: a complication of postoperative enteral nutrition.Arch Surg. 2006;141:701 -704.

Zaloga GP, Roberts PR, Marik P. Feeding the hemodynamically unstable patient: a critical evaluation of the evidence. Nutr Clin Pract. 2003;18:285 -293.

Kozar RA, McQuiggan MM, Moore EE, Kudsk KA, Jurkovich GJ, Moore FA. Postinjury enteral tolerance is reliably achieved by a standardized protocol.J Surg Res. 2002;104:70 -75.

Mutlu GM, Mutlu EA, Factor P. Prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal complications in patients on mechanical ventilation.Am J Respir Med. 2003;2:395 -411.

Lien HC, Chang CS, Chen GH. Can percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy prevent gastroesophageal reflux in patients with preexisting esophagitis?Am J Gastroenterol. 2000 ;95:3439 -3443.

Heyland DK, Drover JW, MacDonald S, Novak F, Lam M. Effect of postpyloric feeding on gastroesophageal regurgitation and pulmonary microaspiration: results of a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1495 -1501.

Ho KM, Dobb GJ, Webb SA. A comparison of early gastric and post-pyloric feeding in critically ill patients: a meta-analysis.Intensive Care Med. 2006 ;32:639 -649.

Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Gastric versus post-pyloric feeding: a systematic review. Crit Care. 2003 ;7:R46 -R51.

Heyland DK, Drover JW, Dhaliwal R, Greenwood J. Optimizing the benefits and minimizing the risks of enteral nutrition in the critically ill: role of small bowel feeding. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002 ;26(6 suppl):S51 -S55.

Montecalvo MA, Steger KA, Farber HW, et al. Nutritional outcome and pneumonia in critical care patients randomized to gastric versus jejunal tube feedings. The Critical Care Research Team. Crit Care Med. 1992 ;20:1377 -1387.

Kortbeek JB, Haigh PI, Doig C. Duodenal versus gastric feeding in ventilated blunt trauma patients: a randomized controlled trial. J Trauma. 1999;46:992 -996.

Kearns LJ, Chin D, Mueller L, Wallace K, Jensen WA, Kirsch CM. The incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia and success in nutrient delivery with gastric versus small intestinal feeding: a randomized clinical trial.Crit Care Med. 2000;28:1742 -1746.

Day HE, Badiani A, Uslaner JM, et al. Environmental novelty differentially affects c-fos mRNA expression induced by amphetamine or cocaine in subregions of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and amygdala.J Neurosci. 2001;21:732 -740.

Esparza J, Boivin MA, Hartshorne MF, Levy H. Equal aspiration rates in gastrically and transpylorically fed critically ill patients.Intensive Care Med. 2001 ;27:660 -664.

Boivin MA, Levy H. Gastric feeding with erythromycin is equivalent to transpyloric feeding in the critically ill. Crit Care Med. 2001 ;29:1916 -1919.

Neumann DA, DeLegge MH. Gastric versus small-bowel tube feeding in the intensive care unit: a prospective comparison of efficacy. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:1436 -1438.

Davies AR, Froomes PR, French CJ, et al. Randomized comparison of nasojejunal and nasogastric feeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:586 -590.

Montejo JC, Grau T, Acosta J, et al. Multicenter, prospective, randomized, single-blind study comparing the efficacy and gastrointestinal complications of early jejunal feeding with early gastric feeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2002 ;30:796 -800.

Heyland DK, MacDonald S, Keefe L, Drover JW. Total parenteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 1998 ;280:2013 -2019.

Brennan MF, Pisters PW, Posner M, Quesada O, Shike M. A prospective randomized trial of total parenteral nutrition after major pancreatic resection for malignancy. Ann Surg. 1994 ;220:436 -444.

Holter AR, Fischer JE. The effects of perioperative hyperalimentation on complications in patients with carcinoma and weight loss.J Surg Res. 1977;23:31 -34.

Müller JM, Brenner U, Dienst C, Pichlmaier H. Preoperative parenteral feeding in patients with gastrointestinal carcinoma.Lancet. 1982;1:68 -79.

Sandstrom R, Drott C, Hyltander A, et al. The effect of postoperative intravenous feeding (TPN) on outcome following major surgery evaluated in a randomized study. Ann Surg. 1993 ;217:185 -195.

Sax HC, Warner BW, Talamini MA, et al. Early total parenteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis: lack of beneficial effects. Am J Surg. 1987;153:117 -124.

Thompson BR, Julian TB, Stremple JF. Perioperative total parenteral nutrition in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. J Surg Res. 1981 ;30:497 -500.

Woolfson AM, Smith JA. Elective nutritional support after major surgery: a prospective randomised trial. Clin Nutr. 1989 ;8:15 -21.

Abel RM, Fischer JE, Buckley MJ, Barnett GO, Austen WG. Malnutrition in cardiac surgical patients: results of a prospective, randomized evaluation of early postoperative parenteral nutrition. Arch Surg. 1976;111:45 -50.

Reilly J, Mehta R, Teperman L, et al. Nutritional support after liver transplantation: a randomized prospective study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1990;14:386 -391.

Williams RH, Heatley RV, Lewis MH. Proceedings: a randomized controlled trial of preoperative intravenous nutrition in patients with stomach cancer. Br J Surg. 1976 ;63:667 .

Moghissi K, Hornshaw J, Teasdale PR, Dawes EA. Parenteral nutrition in carcinoma of the oesophagus treated by surgery: nitrogen balance and clinical studies. Br J Surg. 1977 ;64:125 -128.

Preshaw RM, Attisha RP, Hollingsworth WJ. Randomized sequential trial of parenteral nutrition in healing of colonic anastomoses in man.Can J Surg. 1979;22:437 -439.

Heatley RV, Williams RH, Lewis MH. Pre-operative intravenous feeding: a controlled trial. Postgrad Med J. 1979 ;55:541 -545.

Simms JM, Oliver E, Smith JAR. A study of total parenteral nutrition (TPN) in major gastric and esophageal resection for neoplasia.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1980 ;4:422 .

Lim ST, Choa RG, Lam KH, Wong J, Ong GB. Total parenteral nutrition versus gastrostomy in the preoperative preparation of patients with carcinoma of the oesophagus. Br J Surg. 1981 ;68:69 -72.

Sako K, Loré JM, Kaufman S, Razack MS, Bakamjian V, Reese P. Parenteral hyperalimentation in surgical patients with head and neck cancer: a randomized study. J Surg Oncol. 1981 ;16:391 -402.

Jensen S. Parenteral nutrition and cancer surgery [abstract].JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1982 ;6: 335. Abstract 112.

Moghissi M, Teasdale P, Dench M. Comparison between preoperative enteral (naso-gastric tube) and parenteral feeding in patients with cancer of the oesophagus undergoing surgery [abstract]. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1982;6:335 . Abstract 111.

Müller JM, Keller HW, Brenner U, Walter M, Holzmüller W. Indications and effects of preoperative parenteral nutrition. World J Surg. 1986;10:53 -63.

Garden OJ, Smith A, Harris NW, Shenkin A, Sim AJ, Carter DC. The effect of isotonic amino acid infusions on serum proteins and muscle breakdown following surgery. Br J Surg. 1983 ;70:79 -82.

Bellantone R, Doglietto GB, Bossola M, et al. Preoperative parenteral nutrition in the high risk surgical patient. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1988;12:195 -197.

Smith RC, Hartemink R. Improvement of nutritional measures during preoperative parenteral nutrition in patients selected by the prognostic nutritional index: a randomized controlled trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1988;12:587 -591.

Meguid MM, Curtas MS, Meguid V, Campos AC. Effects of preoperative TPN on surgical risk: preliminary status report. Br J Clin Pract Suppl. 1988;63:53 -58.

Bellantone R, Doglietto G, Bossola M, et al. Preoperative parenteral nutrition of malnourished surgical patients. Acta Chir Scand. 1988;154:249 -251.

Fan ST, Lau WY, Wong KK. Preoperative parenteral nutrition in patients with oesophageal cancer: a prospective randomized clinical trial.Clin Nutr. 1989;8:23 -27.

Veterans affairs total parenteral nutrition cooperative study group: perioperative total parenteral nutrition in surgical patients. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:525 -532.

Von Meyenfeldt MF, Meijerink WJHJ, Rouflart MMJ, Buil-Maassen MTHJ, Soeters PB. Perioperative nutritional support: a randomised clinical trial.Clin Nutr. 1992;11:180 -186.

Fan ST, Lo CM, Lai EC, Chu KM, Liu CL, Wong J. Perioperative nutritional support in patients undergoing hepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1994 ;331:1547 -1552.

Xian-Li H, Qing-Jui M, Kian-Guo L, Yan-Kui C, Xi-Lin D. Effect of total parenteral nutrition (TPN) with and without glutamine dipeptide supplementation on outcome in severe acute pancreatitis (SAP). Clin Nutr Suppl. 2004;1:43 -47.

Collins JP, Oxby CB, Hill GL. Intravenous aminoacids and intravenous hyperalimentation as protein-sparing therapy after major surgery: a controlled clinical trial. Lancet. 1978 ;1:788 -791.

Freund H, Hoover HC Jr, Atamian S, Fischer JE. Infusion of the branched chain amino acids in postoperative patients: anticatabolic properties. Ann Surg. 1979 ;190:18 -23.

Yamada N, Koyama H, Hioki K, Yamada T, Yamamoto M. Effect of postoperative total parenteral nutrition (TPN) as an adjunct to gastrectomy for advanced gastric carcinoma. Br J Surg. 1983 ;70:267 -274.

Jiménez FJ, Leyba CO, Jiménez LM, Valdecasas MS, Montero JG. Study of hypocaloric peripheral parenteral nutrition in postoperative patients. Clin Nutr. 1995 ;14:88 -96.

Askanazi J, Hensle TW, Starker PM, et al. Effect of immediate postoperative nutritional support on length of hospitalization. Ann Surg. 1986;203:236 -239.

Figueras J, Puig P, Rafecas A, et al. Postoperative hypocaloric parenteral nutrition: a study in patients without neoplasm. Acta Chir Scand. 1988;154:435 -438.

Gys T, Peeters R, Hubens A. The value of short-term peripheral parenteral nutrition after colorectal surgery: a comparative study with conventional postoperative intravenous fluid. Acta Chir Belg. 1990 ;90:234 -239.

Hwang TL, Mou SC, Chen MF. The importance of a source of sufficient protein in postoperative hypocaloric partial parenteral nutrition support.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1993 ;17:254 -256.

Detsky AS, Baker JP, O'Rourke K, Goel V. Perioperative parenteral nutrition: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 1987 ;107:195 -203.

Klein S, Kinney J, Jeejeebhoy K, et al. Nutrition support in clinical practice: review of published data and recommendations for future research directions. National Institutes of Health, American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, and American Society for Clinical Nutrition.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1997 ;21:133 -156.

Foster GD, Knox LS, Dempsey DT, Mullen JL. Caloric requirements in total parenteral nutrition. J Am Coll Nutr. 1987 ;6:231 -253.

Barr J, Hecht M, Flavin KE, Khorana A, Gould MK. Outcomes in critically ill patients before and after the implementation of an evidence-based nutritional management protocol. Chest. 2004 ;125:1446 -1457.

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Martin CM, Doig GS, Heyland DK, Morrison T, Sibbald WJ; Southwestern Ontario Critical Care Research Network. Multicentre, cluster-randomized clinical trial of algorithms for critical-care enteral and parenteral therapy (ACCEPT). CMAJ. 2004 ;170:197 -204.

Ziegler TR, Smith RJ, O'Dwyer ST, Demling RH, Wilmore DW. Increased intestinal permeability associated with infection in burn patients.Arch Surg. 1988;123:1313 -1319.

Chiarelli AG, Ferrarello S, Piccioli A, et al. Total enteral nutrition versus mixed enteral and parenteral nutrition in patients in an intensive care unit. Minerva Anestesiol. 1996 ;62:1 -7.

Bauer P, Charpentier C, Bouchet C, Nace L, Raffy F, Gaconnet N. Parenteral with enteral nutrition in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26:893 -900.

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Herndon DN, Barrow RE, Stein M, et al. Increased mortality with intravenous supplemental feeding in severely burned patients. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1989;10:309 -313.

Stroud M. Protein and the critically ill: do we know what to give?Proc Nutr Soc. 2007;66:378 -383.

Choban PS, Dickerson RN. Morbid obesity and nutrition support: is bigger different? Nutr Clin Pract. 2005 ;20:480 -487.

Elamin EM. Nutritional care of the obese intensive care unit patient. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2005 ;11:300 -303.

McClave SA, Sexton LK, Spain DA, et al. Enteral tube feeding in the intensive care unit: factors impeding adequate delivery. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1252 -1256.

Jenkins ME, Gottschlich MM, Warden GD. Enteral feeding during operative procedures in thermal injuries. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1994 ;15:199 -205.

Pinilla JC, Samphire J, Arnold C, Liu L, Thiessen B. Comparison of gastrointestinal tolerance to two enteral feeding protocols in critically ill patients: a prospective, randomized controlled trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2001;25:81 -86.

Montejo JC, Minambres E, Bordeje L, et al. Gastric residual volume during enteral nutrition in ICU patients: the REGANE study. Intensive Care Med. 2009; in press.

Tarling MM, Toner CC, Withington PS, Baxter MK, Whelpton R, Goldhill DR. A model of gastric emptying using paracetamol absorption in intensive care patients. Intensive Care Med. 1997 ;23:256 -260.

Landzinski J, Kiser TH, Fish DN, Wischmeyer PE, MacLaren R. Gastric motility function in critically ill patients tolerant vs intolerant to gastric nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008 ;32:45 -50.

Cohen J, Aharon A, Singer P. The paracetamol absorption test: a useful addition to the enteral nutrition algorithm? Clin Nutr. 2000 ;19:233 -236.

McClave SA, Lukan JK, Stefater JA, et al. Poor validity of residual volumes as a marker for risk of aspiration in critically ill patients.Crit Care Med. 2005;33:324 -330.

McClave SA, DeMeo MT, DeLegge MH, et al. North American summit on aspiration in the critically ill patient: consensus statement. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002 ;26(6 Suppl):S80 -S85.

Adam S, Batson S. A study of problems associated with the delivery of enteral feed in critically ill patients in five ICUs in the UK.Intensive Care Med. 1997 ;23:261 -266.

Spain DA, McClave SA, Sexton LK, et al. Infusion protocol improves delivery of enteral tube feeding in the critical care unit. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1999;23:288 -292.

Torres A, el-Ebiary M, Gonzalez J, et al. Gastric and pharyngeal flora in nosocomial pneumonia acquired during mechanical ventilation.Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 ;148:352 -357.

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