An experiment tested the hypothesis that causal attributions for self-standard discrepancies determine whether the motivation to reduce such discrepancies results in changing self toward standards or changing standards toward self. In this experiment, individuals who were either high or low in self-focus were led to direct attention either toward their performance or toward the standard for that performance immediately following a self-standard discrepancy induction. Predictions under high self-focus conditions were confirmed. High self-focus persons who focused on the standard attributed more causality for their performance to that cognitive element than to self and changed the standard toward self more than did high self-focus persons who focused on their performance and vice versa. Implications of these findings for theories involving operation of the self-to-standard type of system are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Arkin, R. M. , & Duval, S. (1975). Focus of attention and causal attributions of actors and observers. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 427-438.
2.
Aronson, E. (1969). The theory of cognitive dissonance: A current perspective. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1-34). New York: Academic Press.
3.
Aronson, E. , & Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 177-181.
4.
Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: Harper & Row.
5.
Carver, C. S. , Blaney, P. H., & Scheier, M. F. (1979). Reassertion and giving up: The interactive role of self-directed attention and outcome expectancy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1859-1870.
6.
Carver, C. S. , & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag.
7.
Carver, C. S. , & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of position and negative affect: A control process view. Psychology Review, 97, 19-35.
8.
Dana, E. R. , Lalwani, N., & Duval, T. S. (1997). Objective self-awareness and focus of attention following awareness of self-standard discrepancy: Changing self or changing standards of correctness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 16, 359-380.
9.
Davis, D. , & Brock, T. C. (1975). Use of first person pronouns as a function of increased objective self-awareness and performance feedback. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 381-388.
10.
Devine, P. G. , & Monteith, M. J. (1993). The role of discrepancy-associated affect in prejudice reduction. In D. L. Hamilton & D. M. Mackie (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception (pp. 317-344). San Diego: Academic Press.
11.
Duval, T. S. (1976). Conformity on a visual task as a function of personal novelty on attitudinal dimensions and being reminded of the object self. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 88-98.
12.
Duval, S. , & Duval, V. (1983). Consistency and cognition: A theory of causal attribution. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
13.
Duval, T. S. , & Duval, V. H. (1985). Intersection of self and attribution. Paper presented at the meeting of the First Annual International Conference on Self, Nagshead, NC.
14.
Duval, T. S. , Duval, V. H., & Mulilis, J. P. (1992). Effects of self-focus, discrepancy between self and standard, and outcome expectancy favorability on the tendency to match self to standard or to withdraw. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 340-348.
15.
Duval, S. , Duval, V. H., & Neely, R. (1978). Self-focus, felt responsibility, and helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1769-1778.
16.
Duval, T. S. , & Wicklund, R. A. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.
17.
Duval, T. S. , & Wicklund, R. A. (1973). Effects of objective self-awareness on attributions of causality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 17-31.
18.
Duval, T. S. , Wicklund, R. A., & Fine, R. L. (1972). Avoidance of objective self-awareness under conditions of high and low intra-self discrepancy. In S. Duval & R. A. Wicklund (Eds.), A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.
19.
Dweck, C. S. (1991). Self-theories and goals: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on motivation, 1990 (pp. 199-235). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
20.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive-dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
21.
Geller, V. , & Shaver, P. (1976). Cognitive consequences of self-awareness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 99-108.
22.
Heider, F. (1944). Social perception and phenomenological causality. Psychology Review, 50, 358-374.
23.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relationships. New York: John Wiley.
24.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
25.
Higgins, E. T. , Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1985). Self-concept discrepancy theory: A psychological model for distinguishing among difference aspects of depression and anxiety. Social Cognition, 3, 51-76.
26.
Higgins, E. T. , Roney, C. J. R., Crowe, E., & Hymes, C. (1994). Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance: Distinct self-regulatory systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 276-286.
27.
Horney, K. (1945). Our inner conflicts. New York: Norton.
28.
Insko, C. A. , Worchel, S., Songer, E., & Arnold, S. E. (1973). Effort, objective self-awareness, choice and dissonance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 262-269.
29.
Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
30.
Kelly, H. H. (1972). The process of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28, 107-128.
31.
Latane, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36, 343-356.
32.
Locke, E. A. , & Latham, C. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
33.
Markus, H. , & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969.
34.
Mayer, F. S. , Duval, S., Holtz, R., & Bowman, C. (1985). Self-focus, helping request salience, felt responsibility and helping behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 133-144.
35.
Michotte, A. E. (1963). The perception of causality. London: Methuen.
36.
Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328-346.
37.
Oyserman, D. , & Markus, H. R. (1990). Possible selves and delinquency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 112-125.
38.
Prentice-Dunn, S. , & Rogers, R. W. (1989). Deindividuation and the self-regulation of behavior. In P. B. Paulus (Ed.), Psychology of group influence (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
39.
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
40.
Rudner, R. S. (1966). Philosophy of social science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
41.
Schandler, S. L. , Dana, E. R., Burd, K., & Duval, T. S. (1990). Level of self-awareness and psychophysiological patterns of activation. Psychophysiology, 27, 62.
42.
Scheier, M. F. , & Carver, C. S. (1983). Self-directed attention and the comparison of self with standards. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 205-222.
43.
Taylor, S. E. , & Fiske, S. T. (1978). Salience, attention, and attribution: Top of the head phenomena. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 11, pp. 249-288). New York: Academic Press.
44.
Wicklund, R. A. , & Duval, T. S. (1971). Opinion change and performance facilitation as a result of objective self-awareness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 319-342.
45.
Wong, P. T. , & Weiner, B. (1980). When people ask “why” questions and the heuristics of attribution research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 650-662.
