Rejection sensitivity is associated with social–emotional maladjustment in both childhood and adulthood. However, less is known about the etiology of rejection sensitivity. The present study tests an etiological model for rejection sensitivity using a high-risk sample (N = 227) with prospective data from infancy (i.e., 12 months) to adolescence (i.e., eighth grade). Evidence for social learning and attachment theories was demonstrated. In particular, family and parenting factors, such as family conflict and maternal harshness, were predictive of rejection sensitivity in adolescence. Implications for intervention and prevention efforts are discussed.
AndreasenN. C.RiceJ.EndicottJ.ReichT.CoryellW. (1986). The family history approach to diagnosis: How useful is it?Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 421-429.
2.
AnthonyJ. C.WarnerL. A.KesslerR. C. (1994). Comparative epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances, and inhalants: Basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 244-268.
3.
ArbuckleJ. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. In MarcoulidesG. A.SchumackerR. E. (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques (pp. 243-277). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
4.
ArcherJ. (2002). Sex differences in physically aggressive acts between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7, 313-351.
5.
AydukÖ.GyurakA.LuerssenA. (2008). Individual differences in the rejection–aggression link in the hot sauce paradigm: The case of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 775-782.
6.
AydukÖ.ZayasV.DowneyG.ColeA. B.ShodaY.MischelW. (2008). Rejection sensitivity and executive control: Joint predictors of borderline personality features. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 151-168.
7.
BarberB. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296-3319.
8.
BoothC. L.Rose-KrasnorL.McKinnonJ.RubinK. H. (1994). Predicting social adjustment in middle childhood: The role of preschool attachment security and maternal style. Social Development, 3, 189-204. doi:10.1111/j.1467- 9507.1994.tb00040.x
9.
BowlbyJ. (1973). International Psycho-Analytical Library No.95: Vol. 2. Attachment and loss: Separation: Anxiety & anger. London, England: Hogarth Press.
10.
BoydJ. H.WeissmanM. M.ThompsonD.MyersJ. K. (1982). Screening for depression in a community sample: Understanding the discrepancies between depression symptom and diagnostic scales. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1195-1200.
11.
CahalanD.CisinI. H.CrossleyH. M. (1969). American drinking practices: A national study of drinking behavior and attitudes. Monographs of the Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, 6, 260.
12.
CardiV.MatteoR. D.CorfieldF.TreasureJ. (2013). Social reward and rejection sensitivity in eating disorders: An investigation of attentional bias and early experiences. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 14, 622-633.
13.
ClarkR. (1999). The parent-child early relational assessment: A factorial validity study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59, 821-846. doi:10.1177/00131649921970161
14.
ClarkR.MusickJ.ScottF.KlehrK. (1980). The mothers’ project rating scales of mother-child interaction. Unpublished work.
15.
DodgeK. A.MaloneP. S.LansfordJ. E.MillerS.PettitG. S.BatesJ. E. (2009). A dynamic cascade model of the development of substance-abuse onset. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73(3), 1-31.
16.
DowneyG.BonicaC.RincónC. (1999). Rejection sensitivity and adolescent romantic relationships. In FurmanW.BrownB.FeiringC. (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 148-174). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
17.
DowneyG.FeldmanS. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327-1343. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327
18.
DowneyG.FeldmanS. I.KhouriJ.FriedmanS. (1994). Maltreatment and child depression. In ReynoldsW.M.JohnsonH.F. (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 481-508). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
19.
DowneyG.FreitasA.MichaelisB.KhouriH. (1998). The self-fulfilling prophecy in close relationships: Rejection sensitivity and rejection by romantic partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 2545-2560. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.545
20.
DowneyG.KhouriH.FeldmanS. (1997). Early interpersonal trauma and later adjustment: The mediational role of rejection sensitivity. In CicchettiD.TothS. L. (Eds.), Developmental perspectives on trauma: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 85-114). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
EdwardsE. P.EidenR. D.LeonardK. E. (2006). Behavior problems in 18- to 36-month-old children of alcoholic fathers: Secure mother-infant attachment as a protective factor. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 395-407.
23.
EidenR. D.EdwardsE. P.LeonardK. E. (2002). Mother–infant and father–infant attachment among alcoholic families. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 253-278.
24.
EidenR. D.EdwardsE. P.LeonardK. E. (2007). A conceptual model for the development of externalizing behavior problems among kindergarten children of alcoholic families: Role of parenting and children’s self-regulation. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1187-1201.
25.
EidenR. D.LessardJ.ColderC. R.LivingstonJ.CaseyM.LeonardK. E. (2016). Developmental cascade model for adolescent substance use from infancy to late adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 52, 1619-1633.
26.
EllisD. A.ZuckerR. A.FitzgeraldH. E. (1997). The role of family influences in development and risk. Alcohol Research & Health, 21, 218-226.
27.
El-SheikhM.BuckhaltJ. A. (2003). Parental problem drinking and children’s adjustment: Attachment and family functioning as moderators and mediators of risk. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 510-520.
28.
EngferA. (1988). The interrelatedness of marriage and the mother-child relationship. In HindeR. A.HindeJ. S. (Eds.), Relationships within families: Mutual influences (pp. 104-118). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
29.
EnselW. M. (1982). The role of age in the relationship of gender and marital status to depression. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 170, 536-543.
30.
ErozkanA. (2009). Rejection sensitivity levels with respect to attachment styles, gender, and parenting styles: A study of Turkish students. Social Behavior and Personality, 37, 1-14. doi:10.2224/sbp.2009.37.1.1
31.
FearonP.Shmueli-GoetzY.VidingE.FonagyP.PlominR. (2014). Genetic and environmental influences on adolescent attachment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 1033-1041. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12171
32.
FeldmanS.DowneyG. (1994). Rejection sensitivity as a mediator of the impact of childhood exposure to family violence on adult attachment behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 231-247.
33.
FingerB.EidenR. D.EdwardsE. P.LeonardK. E.KachadourianL. (2010). Marital aggression and child peer competence: A comparison of three conceptual models. Personal Relationships, 17, 357-376.
34.
FitzgeraldH. E.EidenR. D. (2007). Paternal alcoholism, family functioning, and infant mental health. Zero to Three, 27(4), 11-18.
35.
GoodmanS. H.RouseM. H.ConnellA. M.BrothM. R.HallC. M.HeywardD. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 1-27.
36.
HudsonW. W.McIntoshS. R. (1981). The assessment of spouse abuse: Two quantifiable dimensions. Journal of Marriage and Family, 43, 873-885.
37.
Institute of Medicine. (2000). From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9824.
38.
IshaqM.HaqueA. M. (2015). Attachment styles, self-esteem and rejection sensitivity among university students. Pakistan Journal of Psychology, 46(2), 3-22.
39.
JacobT.LeonardK. (1994). Family and peer influences in the development of adolescent alcohol abuse. In Zucker, R.; Boyd, G.; and Howard, J., eds. The development of alcohol problems: Exploring the biopsychosocial matrix of risk. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Research Monograph (Vol. 26, pp. 123-155). Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services.
40.
KesslerR. C. (1995). The national comorbidity survey: Preliminary results and future directions. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 139-151.
41.
KesslerR. C.McGonagleK. A.ZhaoS.NelsonC. B.HughesM.EshlemanS.. . . KendlerK. S. (1994). Lifetime and 12 month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8-19.
42.
KlineR. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling, fourth edition. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
43.
LandryS. H.SmithK. E.SwankP. R.AsselM. A.VelletS. (2001). Does early responsive parenting have a special importance for children’s development or is consistency across early childhood necessary?Developmental Psychology, 37, 387-403.
44.
LeonardK. E.EidenR. D. (2007). Marital and family processes in the context of alcohol use and alcohol disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 285-310. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091424
45.
LondonB.DowneyG.BonicaC.PaltinI. (2007). Social causes and consequences of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 481-506. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00531.x
46.
LovejoyM. C.GraczykP. A.O’HareE.NeumanG. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561-592.
47.
MacKinnonD. P.LockwoodC. M.WilliamsJ. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99-128.
48.
McAdamsT. A.NeiderhiserJ. M.RijsdijkF. V.NarusyteJ.LichtensteinP.EleyT. C. (2014). Accounting for genetic and environmental confounds in associations between parent and child characteristics: A systematic review of children-of-twins studies. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1138-1173.
49.
McDonaldK. L.BowkerJ. C.RubinK. H.LaursenB.DucheneM. S. (2010). Interactions between rejection sensitivity and supportive relationships in the prediction of adolescents’ internalizing difficulties. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 563-574. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9519-4
50.
McLachlanJ.Zimmer-GembeckM. J.McGregorL. (2010). Rejection sensitivity in childhood and early adolescence: Peer rejection and protective effects of parents and friends. Journal of Relationships Research, 1, 31-40. doi:10.1375/jrr.1.1.31
51.
MooreS. R.McEwenL. M.QuirtJ.MorinA.MahS. M.BarrR. G.. . . KoborM. S. (2017). Epigenetic correlates of neonatal contact in humans. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 1517-1538.
52.
MuthenL. K.MuthenB. O. (1998-2012). Mplus user’s guide (1998-2012). Los Angeles, CA: Author.
53.
NatarajanG.SomasundaramC. P.SundaramK. P. (2011). Relationship between attachment security and rejection sensitivity in early adolescence. Psychological Studies, 56, 378.
54.
PattersonC. J.CohnD. A.KaoB. T. (1989). Maternal warmth as a protective factor against risks associated with peer rejection among children. Development and Psychopathology, 1, 21-38. doi:10.1017/S0954579400000225
55.
PembertonC. K.NeiderhiserJ. M.LeveL. D.NatsuakiM. N.ShawD. S.ReissD.GeX. (2010). Influence of parental depressive symptoms on adopted toddler behaviors: An emerging developmental cascade of genetic and environmental effects. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 803-818.
56.
RabyK. L.RoismanG. I.FraleyR. C.SimpsonJ. A. (2015). The enduring predictive significance of early maternal sensitivity: Social and academic competence through age 32 years. Child Development, 86, 695-708.
57.
RadloffL. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401.
58.
RossL. T.HillE. M. (2000). The Family Unpredictability Scale: Reliability and validity. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 549-562.
59.
RossL. T.HillE. M. (2004). Comparing alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents on the family unpredictability scale. Psychological Reports, 94, 1385-1391.
60.
RoweS. L.Zimmer GembeckM. J.RudolphJ.NesdaleD. (2015). A longitudinal study of rejecting and autonomy-restrictive parenting, rejection sensitivity, and socioemotional symptoms in early adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 1107-1118.
61.
RubinK. H.DwyerK. M.KimA. H.BurgessK. B.Booth-LaforceC.Rose-KrasnorL. (2004). Attachment, friendship, and psychosocial functioning in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 24, 326-356.
62.
SchaeferE. S. (1965). A configurational analysis of children’s reports of parent behavior. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 552-557.
63.
SchludermannE.SchludermannS. (1970). Replicability of factors in Children’s Report of Parent Behavior (CRPBI). The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 76, 239-249.
64.
SherlockJ. M.ZietschB. P. (2018). Longitudinal relationships between parents’ and children’s behavior need not implicate the influence of parental behavior and may reflect genetics: Comment on Waldinger and Schulz (2016). Psychological Science, 29, 154-157.
65.
StrausM. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. Journal of Marriage and Family, 41, 75-88.
66.
WahlerR. G.DumasJ. E. (1986). Maintenance factors in coercive mother-child interactions: The compliance and predictability hypotheses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 19, 13-22.
67.
WilkinsonL. (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist, 54, 594-604.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
