The current research integrates perspectives on gendered race and person–position fit to introduce the concept of a gender profile. We propose that both the “gender” of a person’s biological sex and the “gender” of a person’s race (Asians are perceived as feminine and Blacks as masculine) help comprise an individual’s gender profile—the overall femininity or masculinity associated with their demographic characteristics. We also propose that occupational positions have gender profiles. Finally, we argue that the overall gender profile of one’s demographics, rather than just one’s biological sex, determines one’s fit and hirability for feminine or masculine occupational roles. The current five studies establish the gender profiles of different races and sexes, and then demonstrate that individuals with feminine-typed and masculine-typed gender profiles are selected for feminine and masculine positions, respectively. These studies provide new insights on who gets ahead in different environments.
AikenL. S.WestS. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
2.
AsendorpfJ. B.ConnerM.De FruytF.De HouwerJ.DenissenJ. J.FiedlerK.. . . WichertsJ. M. (2013). Recommendations for increasing replicability in psychology. European Journal of Personality, 27, 108-119.
3.
BerdahlJ. L.MooreC. (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 426-436.
4.
BertrandM.MullainathanS. (2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination. American Economic Review, 94(4), 991-1013.
5.
BiernatM.SeskoA. K. (2013). Evaluating the contributions of members of mixed-sex work teams: Race and gender matter. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 471-476.
6.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011). Labor force characteristics by race and ethnicity, 2011. U.S. Department of Labor. Available from http://data.bls.gov/
7.
CejkaM. A.EaglyA. H. (1999). Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 413-423.
8.
CrenshawK. (1993). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. In WeisbertD. K. (Ed.), Feminist legal theory: Foundations (pp. 383-395). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. (Original work published 1989)
9.
DevineP. G.ElliotA. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1139-1150.
10.
EaglyA. H.KarauS. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573-598.
11.
EaglyA. H.KiteM. E. (1987). Are stereotypes of nationalities applied to both women and men?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 451-462.
12.
GalinskyA.HallE. V.CuddyA. (2013). Gendered races: Implications for interracial marriage, leadership selection, and athletic participation. Psychological Science, 24, 498-506.
13.
GoffP. A.ThomasM. A.JacksonM. C. (2008). “Ain’t I a woman?” Towards an intersectional approach to person perception and group-based harms. Sex Roles, 59, 392-403.
14.
HayesA. F.PreacherK. J. (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67, 451-470.
15.
HeilmanM. E. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. In StawB.CummingsL. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 5, pp. 269-298). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
16.
HeilmanM. E. (1995). Sex stereotypes and their effects in the workplace: What we know and what we don’t know. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 3-26.
17.
HeilmanM. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 657-674.
18.
JohnsonK. L.FreemanJ. B.PaukerK. (2012). Race is gendered: How covarying phenotypes and stereotypes bias sex categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 116-131.
19.
KarlinsM.CoffmanT. L.WaltersG. (1969). On the fading of social stereotypes: Studies in three generations of college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 1-16.
20.
KatzD.BralyK. (1933). Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 280-290.
21.
KulikC. T.RobersonL.PerryE. L. (2007). The multiple-category problem: Category activation and inhibition in the hiring process. The Academy of Management Review, 32, 529-548.
22.
LivingstonR. W.RosetteA. S.WashingtonE. F. (2012). Can an agentic Black woman get ahead? The impact of race and interpersonal dominance on perceptions of female leaders. Psychological Science, 23, 354-358.
23.
LordR. G.FotiR. J.De VaderC. L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 343-378.
24.
LordR. G.MaherK. J. (2002). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance. New York, NY: Routledge.
25.
McShaneB.BockenholtU. (2013). The power of weak studies: Why the synthesis of a research paper matters. Advances in Consumer Research, 41, 505-506.
NelsonN. L.ProbstT. M. (2004). Multiple minority individuals: Multiplying the risk of workplace harassment and discrimination. In ChinJ. L. (Ed.), The psychology of prejudice and discrimination: Ethnicity and multiracial identity (pp. 193-217). Westport, CT: Praeger.
28.
Purdie-VaughnsV.EibachR. P. (2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinctive advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59, 377-391.
29.
RosetteA. S.LeonardelliG. J.PhillipsK. W. (2008). The White standard: Racial bias in leader categorization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 758-777.
30.
SchugJ.AltN. P.KlauerK. C. (2015). Gendered race prototypes: Evidence for the non-prototypicality of Asian men and Black women. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 56, 121-125.
31.
SeskoA. K.BiernatM. (2010). Prototypes of race and gender: The invisibility of Black women. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 356-360.
32.
SimmonsJ. P.NelsonL. D.SimonsohnU. (2013, January17-19). Life after P-Hacking. Meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, New Orleans, LA. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=2205186
33.
SmithE. R.ZarateM. A. (1992). Exemplar-based model of social judgment. Psychological Review, 99, 3-21.
34.
SyT.ShoreL. M.StraussJ.ShoreT. H.TramS.WhiteleyP.Ikeda-MuromachiK. (2010). Leadership perceptions as a function of race-occupation fit: The case of Asian Americans. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 902-919.
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
