The authors propose that individuals transitioning to a novel environment will prefer upward comparisons, particularly those made with individuals who have experienced a similar transition. Such comparisons help to reduce uncertainty and demonstrate that future success is possible. Study 1 found that individuals facing transitions to unfamiliar situations seek upward comparisons as a result of their uncertainty. Study 2 demonstrated that individuals who perceive themselves to be making a significant life transition are especially motivated by upward comparisons. Study 3 provided evidence that upward comparisons are especially inspiring to individuals making a transition to a novel cultural environment. Study 4 provided experimental evidence that individuals in a novel cultural environment are particularly inspired by upward comparisons with other newcomers. These studies suggest that upward comparisons with individuals who have experienced a similar transition enhance individuals’ sense of control over future outcomes and play a key role during adjustment to novel environments.
BaronR. M.KennyD. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
2.
BogartL.HelgesonV. S. (2000). Social comparisons among women with breast cancer: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 547-575.
3.
BrickmanP.BulmanR. J. (1977). Pleasure and pain in social comparison. In SulsJ. M.MillerR. L. (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives (pp. 43-68). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
4.
FayK.BoydM. J. (2010). Eta-squared. In SalkindN. J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of research design (Vol. 1, pp. 422-425). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
5.
FrieswijkN.BuunkB. P.SteverinkN.SlaetsJ. P. (2004). The effect of social comparison information on the life satisfaction of frail older persons. Psychology and Aging, 19, 183-190.
6.
GumpB. B.KulikJ. A. (1997). Stress, affiliation, and emotional contagion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 305-319.
7.
HeckhausenJ.DixonR. A.BaltesB. P. (1989). Gains and losses in development through adulthood as perceived by different adult age groups. Developmental Psychology, 25, 109-121.
8.
HeckhausenJ.KruegerJ. (1993). Developmental expectations for the self and most other people: Age grading in three functions of social comparison. Developmental Psychology, 29, 539-548.
9.
HeidrichS.RyffC. (1993). The role of social comparisons processes in the psychological adaptation of elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology, 48, 127-136.
10.
HelgesonV. S.TaylorS. E. (1993). Social comparisons and adjustment among cardiac patients. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1171-1195.
11.
LockeK. D.NekichJ. C. (2000). Agency and communion in naturalistic social comparison. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 864-874.
12.
LockwoodP.ChasteenA. L.WongC. (2005). Age and regulatory focus determine preferences for health-related role models. Psychology and Aging, 20, 376-389.
13.
LockwoodP.KundaZ. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 91-103.
14.
LockwoodP.MarshallT. C.SadlerP. (2005). Promoting success or preventing failure: Cultural differences in motivation by positive and negative role models. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 379-392.
15.
LockwoodP.SadlerP.FymanK.TuckS. (2004). To do or not to do: Using positive and negative role models to harness motivation. Social Cognition, 22, 422-450.
16.
LockwoodP.WongC.McShaneK.DoldermanD. (2005). The impact of positive and negative fitness exemplars on motivation. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27, 1-13.
17.
MajorB.TestaM.BylsmaW. H. (1991). Responses to upward and downward social comparisons: The impact of esteem-relevance and perceived control. In SulsJ.WillsT. A. (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 237-260). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
18.
MorseS.GergenK. J. (1970). Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 148-156.
19.
RyffC. D. (1991). Possible selves in adulthood and old age: A tale of shifting horizons. Psychology and Aging, 6, 286-295.
20.
StantonA. L.Danoff-BurgS.CameronC.SniderP.KirkS. (1999). Social comparison and adjustment to breast cancer: An experimental examination of upward affiliation and downward evaluation. Health Psychology, 18, 151-158.
21.
TaylorS. E.LobelM. (1989). Social comparison activity under threat: Downward evaluations and upward contacts. Psychological Review, 96, 569-575.
22.
TesserA. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181-227). New York, NY: Academic Press.
23.
TestaM.MajorB. (1990). The impact of social comparisons after failure: The moderating effects of perceived control. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 11, 205-218.
24.
WheelerL.MiyakeK. (1992). Social comparison in everyday life. Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes, 62, 760-773.
25.
WhiteK.LehmanD. R. (2005). Culture and social comparison seeking: The role of self-motives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 232-242.
26.
WhiteK.LehmanD. R.CohenD. (2006). Culture, self-construal, and affective reactions to successful and unsuccessful others. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 582-592.
27.
WillsT. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245-271.
28.
WoodJ. V.TaylorS. E.LichtmanR. R. (1985). Social comparison in adjustment to breast cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1169-1183.
