In two experiments, the authors investigated the interpersonal effects of anger and disappointment in negotiations. Whereas previous research focused on the informational inferences that bargainers make based on others’ emotions, this article emphasizes the importance of affective reactions. The findings of this study show that anger evoked a complementary emotion (fear) in targets when reported by a high-power bargainer but evoked a reciprocal emotion (anger) when reported by a low-power bargainer. This reciprocal anger led participants to offer less to low-power counterparts who reported anger. Disappointed bargainers, however, evoked a complementary emotion (guilt) in participants and increased offers, regardless of the bargainer’s power position.
AverillJ. R. (1982). Anger and aggression. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
2.
BaronR. M.KennyD. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
3.
BarsadeS. G. (2002). The ripple effect: Emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 644-675.
4.
BaumeisterR. F. (1982). A self-presentational view of social phenomena. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 3-26.
5.
BaumeisterR. F.StillwellA. M.HeathertonT. F. (1994). Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 243-267.
6.
BellC.SongF. (2005). Emotions in the conflict process: An application of the cognitive appraisal model of emotion to conflict management. International Journal of Conflict Management, 16, 30-54.
7.
BellD. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. Operations Research, 33, 1-27.
8.
CamererC.ThalerR. H. (1995). Anomalies: Ultimatums, dictators and manners. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9, 209-219.
9.
ClarkM. S.BrissetteI. (2003). Two types of relationship closeness and their influence on people’s emotional lives. In DavidsonR. J.SchererK. R.GoldsmithH. H. (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 824-838). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
10.
ClarkM. S.PatakiS. P.CarverV. H. (1996). Some thoughts and findings on self-presentation of emotions in relationships. In FletcherG. J. O.FitnessJ. (Eds.), Knowledge structures in close relationships: A social psychological approach (pp. 247-274). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
11.
DimbergU.ÖhmanA. (1996). Behold the wrath: Psychophysiological responses to facial stimuli. Motivation and Emotion, 20, 149-182.
12.
FisherR.UryW. (1981). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
13.
FiskeS. T. (1993). Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist, 48, 621-628.
14.
ForgasJ. P. (1998). On feeling good and getting your way: Mood effects on negotiator cognition and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 565-577.
15.
FriedmanR.AndersonC.BrettJ.OlekalnsM.GoatesN.LiscoC. C. (2004). The positive and negative effects of anger on dispute resolution: Evidence from electronically mediated disputes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 369-376.
16.
FrijdaN. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
17.
FrijdaN. H.KuipersP.Ter SchureE. (1989). Relations among emotion, appraisal, and emotional action readiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 212-228.
18.
GilbertP.AndrewsB. (1998). Shame. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
19.
Giner-SorollaR.EspinosaP. (2011). Social cuing of guilt by anger and of shame by disgust. Psychological Science, 22, 49-53.
20.
GüthW.SchmittbergerR.SchwarzeB. (1982). An experimental analysis of ultimatum games. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3, 367-388.
21.
HandgraafM. J. J.Van DijkE.VermuntR. C.WilkeH. A. M.De DreuC. K. W. (2008). Less power or powerless? Egocentric empathy gaps and the irony of having little versus no power in social decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1136-1149.
22.
HatfieldE.CacioppoJ. T.RapsonR. L. (1994). Emotional contagion. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
23.
HessU.BlairyS. (2001). Facial mimicry and emotional contagion to dynamic emotional facial expressions and their influence on decoding accuracy. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 40, 129-141.
24.
KeltnerD.HaidtJ. (1999). Social functions of emotions at four levels of analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 505-521.
25.
KeltnerD.Van KleefG. A.ChenS.KrausM. (2008). A reciprocal influence model of social power: Emerging principles and lines of inquiry. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 151-192.
26.
KetelaarT.AuW. T. (2003). The effects of feelings of guilt on the behavior of uncooperative individuals in repeated social bargaining games: An affect-as-information interpretation of the role of emotion in social interaction. Cognition and Emotion, 17, 429-453.
27.
KopelmanS.RosetteA. S.ThompsonL. (2006). The three faces of eve: An examination of the strategic display of positive, negative, and neutral emotions in negotiations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99, 81-101.
28.
LearyM. R. (1995). Self-presentation: Impression management and interpersonal behavior. Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark.
29.
LeithK. P.BaumeisterR. F. (1998). Empathy, shame, guilt, and narratives of interpersonal conflicts: Guilt-prone people are better at perspective taking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1-37.
30.
LelieveldG.-J.Van DijkE.Van BeestI.SteinelW.Van KleefG. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 635-641.
31.
LernerJ. S.KeltnerD. (2000). Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgment and choice. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 473-493.
32.
LernerJ. S.KeltnerD. (2001). Fear, anger and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 146-159.
33.
MallettR. K.SwimJ. K. (2007). The influence of inequality, responsibility and justifiability on reports of group-based guilt for ingroup privilege. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10, 57-69.
34.
MoodyE. J.McIntoshD. N.MannL. J.WeisserK. R. (2007). More than mere mimicry? The influence of emotion on rapid facial reactions to faces. Emotion, 7, 447-457.
35.
MorrisM. W.KeltnerD. (2000). How emotions work: An analysis of the social functions of emotional expression in negotiations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 22, 1-50.
36.
ParkinsonB. (1996). Emotions are social. British Journal of Psychology, 87, 663-683.
37.
PillutlaM. M.MurnighanJ. K. (1996). Unfairness, anger, and spite: Emotional rejections and ultimatum offers. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 68, 208-224.
38.
PinkleyR. L. (1995). Impact of knowledge regarding alternatives to settlement in dyadic negotiations: Whose knowledge counts?Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 403-417.
39.
PreacherK. J.HayesA. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717-731.
40.
PreacherK. J.HayesA. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891.
41.
PruittD. G.CarnevaleP. J. (1993). Negotiation in social conflict. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
42.
SchererK. R.SchorrA.JohnstoneT., (Eds.) (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
43.
SinaceurM.TiedensL. Z. (2006). Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 314-322.
44.
SuleimanR. (1996). Expectations and fairness in a modified ultimatum game. Journal of Economic Psychology, 17, 531-554.
45.
ThompsonL.ValleyK. L.KramerR. M. (1995). The bittersweet feeling of success: An examination of social perception in negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 467-492.
46.
TiedensL. Z.FragaleA. R. (2003). Power moves: Complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 558-568.
47.
TiedensL. Z.LintonS. (2001). Judgment under emotional certainty and uncertainty: The effects of specific emotions on information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 973-988.
48.
TimmersM.FischerA. H.MansteadA. S. R. (1998). Gender differences in motives for regulating emotions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 974-985.
49.
Van BeestI.Van KleefG. A.Van DijkE. (2008). Get angry, get out: The interpersonal effects of anger communication in multiparty negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 993-1002.
50.
Van DijkE.Van KleefG. A.SteinelW.Van BeestI. (2008). A social functional approach to emotions in bargaining: When communicating anger pays and when it backfires. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 600-614.
51.
Van DijkE.VermuntR. (2000). Strategy and fairness in social decision making: Sometimes it pays to be powerless. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 1-25.
52.
Van DijkW. W.ZeelenbergM. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 787-807.
53.
Van KleefG. A.CôtéS. (2007). Expressing anger in social conflict: When it helps and when it hurts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1557-1569.
54.
Van KleefG. A.De DreuC. K. W.MansteadA. S. R. (2004a). The interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 57-76.
55.
Van KleefG. A.De DreuC. K. W.MansteadA. S. R. (2004b). The interpersonal effects of emotions in negotiations: A motivated information processing approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 510-528.
56.
Van KleefG. A.De DreuC. K. W.MansteadA. S. R. (2006). Supplication and appeasement in conflict and negotiation: The interpersonal effects of disappointment, worry, guilt, and regret. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 124-142.
57.
Van KleefG. A.De DreuC. K. W.MansteadA. S. R. (2010). An interpersonal approach to emotion in social decision making: The emotions as social information model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 45-96.
58.
Van KleefG. A.De DreuC. K. W.PietroniD.MansteadA. S. R. (2006). Power and emotion in negotiation: Power moderates the interpersonal effects of anger and happiness on concession making. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 557-581.
59.
Van KleefG. A.OveisC.Van der LöweI.LuoKoganA.GoetzJ.KeltnerD. (2008). Power, distress, and compassion: Turning a blind eye to the suffering of others. Psychological Science, 19, 1315-1322.
60.
Van KleefG. A.Van LangeP. A. M. (2008). What other’s disappointmentmaydo to selfish people: Emotion and social value orientation in a negotiation context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1084-1095.
61.
YooS. H.ClarkM. S.LemayE. P.SaloveyP.MoninJ. K. (2011). Responding to partners’ expression of anger: The role of communal motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 229-241.
