Although racial stereotyping and prejudice research have received considerable attention, the important element of social class has been largely excluded from social psychological research. Using the Statement Recognition Procedure, two experiments investigated social categorization along race and social class dimensions, the influence of racial and social class prejudice on these categorizations, and differences between White and Black perceivers. Analyses conducted at the subtype of race and social class memberships demonstrated differing patterns of categorization based on subtype membership. For example, lowerclass Black targets were primarily categorized by race, whereas middle-class Black targets were primarily categorized by social class. The results demonstrate the importance of considering social class membership independent of and in conjunction with race. Theoretical and methodological implications regarding the study for race and social class categorizations are discussed.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley.
2.
Argyle, M. (1994). The psychology of social class. London: Routledge.
3.
Bayton, J. A., McAllister, L. B., & Hamer, J. (1976). Race-class stereotypes. Journal of Negro Education, 25, 75-78.
4.
Biernat, M., & Crandell, C. S. (1999). Racial attitudes. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver,& L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of political attitudes(pp. 297-411). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
5.
Bodenhausen, G. V., & Macrae, C. N. (1998). Stereotype activation and inhibition. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Ed.), Advances in social cognition(Vol. 11, pp. 1-52). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6.
Bogardus, E. S. (1933). A social distance scale. Sociology and Social Research, 17, 265-271.
7.
Bogardus, E. S. (1959). Social distance. Yellow Springs, OH: Antioch.
8.
Brewer, M. B. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Eds.), Advances in social cognition(Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
9.
Brewer, M. B., Weber, J. G., & Carini, B. (1995). Person memory in intergroup contexts: Categorization versus individuation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 29-40.
10.
Brigham, J. C. (1993). College students’ racial attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1933-1967.
11.
Devine, P. G. (1989). Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1142-1163.
12.
Devine, P. G., & Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1139-1150.
13.
Dovidio, J. F., Brigham, J. C., Johnson, B. T., & Gaertner, S. L. (1996). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination: Another look. In C. N. Macrae, C. Stangor, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes and stereotyping. New York: Guilford.
14.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510-540.
15.
Fazio, R. H., & Dunton, B. C. (1997). Categorization by race: The impact of automatic and controlled components of racial prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 451-470.
16.
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027.
17.
Feldman, J. M. (1972). Stimulus characteristics and subject prejudice as determinants of stereotype attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21, 333-340.
18.
Feldman, J. M., & Hilterman, R. J. (1974). Stereotype attribution revisited: The role of stimulus characteristics, racial attitude, and cognitive differentiation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1, 62-65.
19.
Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum model of impression formation from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology(Vol. 3, pp. 1-74). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
20.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991). The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 509-517.
21.
Giles, M. W., Gatlin, D. S., & Cataldo, E. F. (1976). Racial and class prejudice: Their relative effects on protest against school desegregation. American Sociological Review, 41, 280-288.
22.
Herring, C. (1989). Convergence, polarization, or what? Racially based changes in attitudes and outlooks, 1964-1984. The Sociological Quarterly, 30, 267-281.
23.
Hoyt, S. K. (1999). Beyond prejudiced thoughts: Conceptual links between classism and discrimination. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Miami University.
24.
Hoyt, S. K., Doyon, T. A., & Dietz-Uhler, B. (1998). The classism scale. Poster presented at the 70th annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.
25.
Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism. New York: McGraw-Hill. (Original work published 1972)
26.
Jussim, L., Coleman, L. M., & Lerch, L. (1987). The nature of stereotypes: A comparison and integration of three theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 536-546.
27.
Katz, D.,& Braly, K. (1933). Racial stereotypes in one hundred college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 280-290.
28.
Kessler, R. C., & Neighbors, H. W. (1986). A new perspective on the relationships among race, social class, and psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 27, 107-115.
29.
Kirby, B. J. (1999). Income source and race effects on new-neighbor evaluations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 1497-1511.
30.
Klonis, S. C., & Devine, P. G. (2001). Measurement of racial and socioeconomic subgroups. Paper presented at the 3rd annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Savannah, GA.
31.
Laumann, E. O. (1966). Prestige and association in an urban community. New York: Bobbs-Merrill.
32.
Lepore, L.,& Brown, R. (1997). Category and stereotype activation: Is prejudice inevitable?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 275-287.
33.
Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93-120.
34.
Madon, S., Jussim, L., Keiper, S., Eccles, J., Smith, A., & Palumbo, P. (1998). The accuracy and power of sex, social class, and ethnic stereotypes: A naturalistic study in person perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1304-1318.
35.
McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racismscale. In J. F. Dovidio& S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism(pp. 91-125). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
36.
Monteith, M. J., & Spicer, C. V. (2000). Contents and correlates of Whites’ and Blacks’ racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 125-154.
37.
Pendry, L. F., & Macrae, C. N. (1996). What the disinterested perceiver overlooks: Goal-directed social categorization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 250-257.
38.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1980). The changing—not declining—significance of race. Contemporary Sociology, 9, 19-21.
39.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1981). Race and class in the 1980s: An interactive view. Daedalus, 110, 233-255.
40.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1985). New Black-White patterns: How best to conceptualize them?Annual Review of Sociology, 11, 329-346.
41.
Piliavin, I. M., Rodin, J., & Piliavin, J. A. (1969). Good Samaritanism: An underground phenomenon?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 289-299.
42.
Posner, M. I., & Keele, S. W. (1968). On the genesis of abstract ideas. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 77, 353-363.
43.
Ramsey, S. L., Lord, C. G., Wallace, D. S., & Pugh, M. A. (1994). The role of subtypes in attitudes towards superordinate social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 387-403.
44.
Reed, S. K. I. (1972). Pattern recognition and categorization. Cognitive Psychology, 3, 382-407.
45.
Rich, M. (2000). Finding Forrester[Screenplay]. Los Angeles: Twentieth Century Fox.
46.
Runciman, W. G. (1972). Race and social stratification. Race, 13, 497-509.
47.
Russell, G. M. (1996). Internalized classism: The role of class in the development of self. Women and Therapy, 18, 59-71.
48.
Shelton, J. N. (2000). A reconceptualization of how we study issues of racial prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 374-390.
49.
Smedley, J. W., & Bayton, J. A. (1978). Evaluative race-class stereotypes by race and perceived class of subjects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 530-535.
50.
Stangor, C., Lynch, L., Duan, C., & Glass, B. (1992). Categorization of individuals on the basis of multiple social features. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 207-218.
51.
Stangor, C.,& McMillan, D. (1992). Memory for expectancy-congruent and expectancy-incongruent information: A review of the social and social developmental literatures. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 42-61.
52.
Stewart, T. L., Weeks, M.,& Lupfer, M. B. (2003). Spontaneous stereotyping: A matter of prejudice?Social Cognition, 21, 263-298.
53.
Taylor, S. E., & Falcone, H. (1982). Cognitive bases of stereotyping: The relationship between categorization and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 426-432.
54.
Taylor, S. E., Fiske, S. T., Etcoff, N. L., & Ruderman, A. J. (1978). Categorical and contextual bases of person memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 778-793.
55.
Triandis, H. C., & Triandis, L. M. (1960). Race, social class, religion, and nationality as determinants of social distance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 110-118.
56.
van Knippenberg, A., van Twuyver, M., & Pepels, J. (1994). Factors affecting social categorization processes inmemory. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 419-431.
57.
Warheit, G., Holzer, C. E., & Arey, S. S. (1975). Race and mental illness: An epidemiologic update. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 16, 243-256.
58.
Westie, F. R. (1952). Negro-White differentials in social distance. American Sociological Review, 17, 550-558.
59.
Westie, F. R. (1953). A technique for the measurement of race attitudes. American Sociological Review, 18, 73-78.
60.
Westie, F. R., & Westie, M. L. (1957). The social distance pyramid: Relations between caste and class. American Journal of Sociology, 63, 190-196.
61.
Wilson, W. J. (1978). The declining significance of race: Blacks and changing American institutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
62.
Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1997). Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 262-274.
63.
Zarate, M. A., & Smith, E. R. (1990). Person categorization and stereotyping. Social Cognition, 8, 161-185.
