The study offers the first investigation of cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between attachment and religiosity with adolescent participants. Adolescence is a life period linked to attachment transitions and religious changes. The research was conducted to help resolve inconsistent results from previous cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies and studies on attachment to parents versus peer attachment. Time 1 questionnaire data was collected from 196 Swedish adolescents (M age = 16 years); 143 participants completed the 15-month follow-up. Results from the cross-sectional analyses generally supported the socialized correspondence and emotional compensation hypotheses, particularly in relation to attachment to mother. Results from the longitudinal analyses were more mixed. The discussion integrates the hypotheses with Kirkpatrick’s previous proposal, argues for a main focus on attachment to parents rather than peer attachment, and offers suggestions for future attachment and religion studies.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ainsworth, M. D. (1985). Attachments across the life-span. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 61, 792-812.
2.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. , Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
3.
Allen, J. P. , & Land, D. (1999). Attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment theory and research (pp. 319-335). New York: Guilford.
4.
Armsden, G. C. , & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427-453.
5.
Batson, C. D. , Natifeh, S. J., & Pate, S. (1978). Social desirability, religious orientation, and racial prejudice. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 17, 31-41.
6.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
7.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Separation anxiety and anges: Vol. 2. Attachment and Loss. New York: Basic Books.
8.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 3. Loss. New York: Basic Books.
9.
Brennan, K. A. , Clark, C. A., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46-76). New York: Guilford.
10.
Bretherton, I. (1985). Attachment theory: Retrospect and prospect. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50 (1-2, Serial No. 209), 3-35.
11.
Bretherton, I. (1987). New perspectives on attachment relations: Security, communication, and internal working models. In J. D. Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (2nd ed., pp. 1061-1100). New York: John Wiley.
12.
Bretherton, I. (1991). The roots and growing points of attachment theory. In C. M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the life-cycle (pp. 9-32). London: Tavistock/Routledge.
13.
Burris, C. T. , Batson, C. D., Altstaedten, M., & Stephens, K. (1994). “What a friend...”: Loneliness as a motivator of intrinsic religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33, 326-334.
14.
Cassidy, J. , & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (1999). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications. New York: Guilford.
15.
Colin, V. L. (1996). Human attachment. New York: McGraw-Hill.
16.
Collins, N. L. , & Read, S. J. (1990). Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 644-663.
17.
Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
18.
Fraley, R. C. , & Davis, K. E. (1997). Attachment formation and transfer in young adults’ close friendships and romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 4, 131-144.
19.
Fraley, R. C. , & Waller, N. G. (1998). Adult attachment patterns: A test of the typological model. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 77-114). New York: Guilford.
20.
Freud, S. (1964). The future of an illusion. Garden City, NY: Double Day. (Original work published 1923)
21.
George, C. , Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1996). Attachment interview for adults (3rd ed.). Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.
22.
Granqvist, P. (1998). Religiousness and perceived childhood attachment: On the question of compensation or correspondence. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 350-367.
23.
Granqvist, P. , & Hagekull, B. (1999). Religiousness and perceived childhood attachment: Profiling socialized correspondence and emotional compensation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 38, 254-273.
24.
Granqvist, P. , & Hagekull, B. (2000). Religiosity, adult attachment, and why “singles” are more religious. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 10, 111-123.
25.
Granqvist, P. , & Hagekull, B. (2001). Seeking security in the new age: On attachment and emotional compensation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40, 529-547.
26.
Hair, J. F., Jr. , Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1995). Multivariate data analysis with readings (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
27.
Hazan, C. , & Shaver, P. R. (1986). Parental Caregiving Style Questionnaire. Unpublished document, Cornell University.
28.
Hazan, C. , & Zeifman, D. (1999). Pair bonds as attachments: Evaluating the evidence. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 336-355). New York: Guilford.
29.
Hood, R. W., Jr. , Spilka, B., Hunsberger, B., & Gorsuch, R. L. (1996). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
30.
Hyde, J. A. (2000). Adult attachment and the representation of God. Unpublished manuscript, Illinois School of Professional Psychology, Chicago.
31.
James, W. (1902). Varieties of religious experience. New York: Longmans, Green.
32.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1992). An attachment-theory approach to the psychology of religion. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 2, 3-28.
33.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1994). The role of attachment in religious belief and behavior. In K. Bartholomew & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 5, pp. 239-265). London: Jessica Kingsley.
34.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1995). Attachment theory and religious experience. In R. W. Hood, Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of religious experience (pp. 446-475). Birmingham, AL: Religious Education.
35.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1997). A longitudinal study of changes in religious belief and behavior as a function of individual differences in adult attachment style. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36, 207-217.
36.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1998a). Evolution, pair-bonding, and reproductive strategies: A reconceptualization of adult attachment. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 353-393). New York: Guilford.
37.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1998b). God as a substitute attachment figure: A longitudinal study of adult attachment style and religious change in college students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 961-973.
38.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1999). Attachment and religious representations and behavior. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment theory and research (pp. 803-822). New York: Guilford.
39.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. , & Shaver, P. R. (1990). Attachment theory and religion: Childhood attachments, religious beliefs and conversions. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29, 315-334.
40.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. , & Shaver, P. R. (1992). An attachment-theoretical approach to romantic love and religious belief. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 266-275.
41.
Kobak, R. , & Ferenz-Gillies, R. (1995). Emotion regulation and depressive symptoms during adolescence: A functionalist perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 183-192.
42.
Kobak, R. , Ferenz-Gillies, R., Everhart, E., & Seabrook, L. (1994). Maternal attachment strategies and emotion regulation with adolescent offspring. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 553-566.
43.
Kobak, R. R. , Cole, H. E., Ferenz-Gillies, R., & Fleming, W. S. (1993). Attachment and emotion regulation during mother-teen problem solving: A control theory analysis. Child Development, 64, 231-245.
44.
Lapsley, D. K. , Rice, K. G., & Fitzgerald, D. P. (1990). Adolescent attachment, identity, and adjustment to college: Implications for the continuity of adaptation hypothesis. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 561-565.
45.
Londerville, S. , & Main, M. (1981). Security of attachment, compliance, and maternal training in the second year of life. Developmental Psychology, 17, 289-299.
46.
Maccoby, E. E. (1984). Socialization and developmental change. Child Development, 55, 317-328.
47.
Main, M. , Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50 (1-2, Serial No. 209), 66-104.
48.
Matas, L. , Arend, R. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1978). Continuity of adaptation in the second year: The relationship between quality of attachment and later competence. Child Development, 49, 547-556.
49.
Mikulincer, M. (1998). Adult attachment style and affect regulation: Strategic variations in self-appraisals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 420-435.
50.
Moore, D. (1987). Parent-adolescent separation: The construction of adulthood by late adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 23, 298-307.
51.
Palladino Schultheiss, D. E. , & Blustein, D. L. (1994). Role of adolescent-parent relationships in college student development and adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 248-255.
52.
Papini, D. R. , & Roggman, L. A. (1992). Adolescent perceived attachment to parents in relation to competence, depression, and anxiety: A longitudinal study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12, 420-440.
53.
Pettersson, T. (1994). Svensk mentalitet i ett internationellt perspektiv. Ungdomars välfärd och värderingar [Swedish mentality in an international perspective: Welfare and values of youths]. Statens Offentliga Utredningar, 73. Stockholm: Civildepartementet.
54.
Rice, K. G. (1990). Attachment and adolescence: A narrative and meta-analytic review. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 511-538.
55.
Richters, J. E. , & Waters, E. (1991). Attachment and socialization: The positive side of social influence. In M. Lewis & S. Feinman (Eds.), Social influences and socialization in infancy: Genesis of behavior series (Vol. 6, pp. 185-213). New York: Plenum.
56.
Rizzuto, A.-M. (1979). The birth of the living God: A psychoanalytical study. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
57.
Roof, W. C. , & Hadaway, C. K. (1979). Denominational switching in the seventies: Going beyond Stark and Glock. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 18, 363-379.
58.
Roof, W. C. , & McKinney, W. (1987). American mainline religion: Its changing shape and future. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
59.
Simpson, J. A. , Rholes, W. S., & Nelligan, J. S. (1992). Support seeking and support giving within couples in an anxiety provoking situation: The role of attachment styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 434-446.
60.
Sroufe, L. A. , & Waters, E. (1977). Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Development, 48, 1184-1199.
61.
Starbuck, E. D. (1899). The psychology of religion. New York: Scribner.
