This article presents an acoustical model and evidence from four experiments that children with visual impairments use the buildup of low-frequency sound along walls to guide locomotion. The model differs from the concept of echolocation by emphasizing sound that is ambient, rather than self-produced, and of low, rather than high, frequency.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AmnionsC. H., WorchelP., & DallenbachK. M. (1953). Facial vision: The perception of obstacles out of doors by blindfolded and blindfolded-deafened subjects. American Journal of Psychology, 66, 519–553.
2.
BassettI. G., & EastmondE. J. (1964). Echolocation: Measurement of pitch versus distance for sounds reflected from a flat surface. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 36, 911–916.
3.
Carlson-SmithC., & WienerW. R. (1996). The auditory skills necessary for echolocation: A new explanation. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 90, 21–35.
4.
CliftonR. K., & FreymanR. L. (1997). The precedence effect: Beyond echo suppression. In GilkeyR. H. & AndersonT. R. (Eds.), Binaural and spatial hearing in real and virtual environments (pp. 233–255). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
5.
ColburnH. S., IsabelleS. K., & TollinD. J. (1997). Modeling binaural detection performance for individual masker waveforms. In GilkeyR. H. & AndersonT. R. (Eds.), Binaural and spatial hearing in real and virtual environments (pp. 533–570). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6.
CotzinM., & DallenbachK. M. (1950). Facial vision: The role of pitch and loudness in the perception of obstacles by the blind. American Journal of Psychology, 63, 485–515.
7.
FarmerL. W. (1980). Mobility devices. In WelshR. L. & BlaschB. B. (Eds.), Foundations of orientation and mobility (pp. 357–412). New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
8.
FarmerL. W., & SmithD. L. (1997). Adaptive technology. In BlaschB. B., WienerW. R., & WelshR. L. (Eds.), Foundations of orientation and mobility (2nd ed., pp. 231–259). New York: AFB Press.
9.
FieldsJ. E. (1964). Sensory training for blind persons. New Outlook for the Blind, 58, 2–9.
10.
HillE. W., & PonderP. (1976). Orientation and mobility techniques: A guide for the practitioner.New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
11.
JacobsonW. (1993). The art and science of teaching orientation and mobility to persons with visual impairments.New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
LaGrowS., & WeessiesM. (1994). Orientation and mobility: Techniques for independence.Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press.
14.
MershonD. H., BallengerW. L., LittleA. D., McMurtryP. L., & BuchananJ. L. (1989). Effects of room reflectance and background noise on perceived auditory distance. Perception, 18, 403–416.
15.
RileyL. H., LutermanD. M., & CohenM. F. (1964). Relationship between hearing ability and mobility in a blinded adult population. New Outlook for the Blind, 58, 139–141.
16.
SchenkmanB. N., & JanssonG. (1986). The detection and localization of objects by the blind with the aid of long-cane tapping sounds. Human Factors, 28, 607–618.
17.
StrelowE. R., & BrabynJ. A. (1982). Locomotion of the blind controlled by natural sound cues. Perception, 11, 635–640.
18.
SupaM., CotzinM., & DallenbachK. M. (1944). “Facial vision”: The perception of obstacles by the blind. American Journal of Psychology, 57, 133–183.
19.
WienerW. R. (1980). Audition. In WelshR. L. & BlaschB. B. (Eds.), Foundations of orientation and mobility (pp. 115–185). New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
20.
WienerW. R., & LawsonG. D. (1997). Audition for the traveler who is visually impaired. In BlaschB. B., WienerW. R., & WelshR. L. (Eds.), Foundations of orientation and mobility (2nd ed., pp. 104–169). New York: AFB Press.
21.
WorchelP., & DallenbachK. M. (1947). Facial vision: Perception of obstacles by the deaf-blind. American Journal of Psychology, 60, 502–553.
22.
WorchelP., MauneyJ., & AndrewJ. G. (1950). The perception of obstacles by the blind. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 746–751.