This study investigated the types of gestures used, the frequency of the gestures, and the total time engaged in gestural communication by 11 visually impaired-sighted dyads; 12 sighted-sighted dyads; and 8 visually impaired-visually impaired dyads. Regardless of the type of dyad, the persons who were visually impaired used more adaptors and used gestures, emblems, and illustrators less often than did those who were sighted.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AndersenP. A. (1999). Nonverbal communication: Forms and functions.Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
2.
AppleM. M. (1972a). Kinesic training for blind persons: A vital means of communication. New Outlook, 66, 201–208.
3.
AppleM. M. (1972b). Kinesic training for the blind: A program. Education of the Visually Handicapped, 4, 55–60.
4.
BanduraA. (1977). Social learning theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
5.
BlassT., FreedmanN., & SteingartI. (1974). Body movement and verbal encoding in the congenitally blind. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 39, 279–293.
6.
BrambringM., & TrosterH. (1992). On the stability of stereotyped behaviors in blind infants and preschoolers. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 86, 105–110.
7.
BurgoonJ. K., BullerD. B., & WoodallW. G. (1996). Nonverbal communication: The unspoken dialogue (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
8.
BurgoonJ. K., & KoperR. J. (1984). Nonverbal and relational communication associated with reticence. Human Communication Research, 10, 601–626.
9.
BuzolichM. J., & WiemannJ. M. (1988). Turn-taking in atypical conversations: The case of the speaker/augmented-communicator dyad. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 31, 3–18.
10.
CohenA. A. (1977). The communicative functions of hand illustrators. Journal of Communication, 27, 54–63.
11.
CohenA. A., & HarrisonR. P. (1973). Intentionality in the use of hand illustrators in face-to-face communication situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 276–279.
12.
CutsforthT. D. (1933). The blind in school and society: A psychological study.New York: D. Appleton.
13.
DuncanS., & FiskeD. W. (1977). Face-to-face interaction: Research, methods, and theory.New York: John Wiley & Sons.
14.
EfronE. (1941). Gesture and environment.New York: King's Crown.
15.
EichelV. J. (1978). Mannerisms of the blind: A review of the literature. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 72, 125–130.
16.
EichelV. J. (1979). A taxonomy for mannerisms of blind children. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 73, 167–177.
17.
EkmanP., & FriesenW. V. (1969). The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, and coding. Semiotica, I, 49–98.
18.
EkmanP., & FriesenW. V. (1972). Hand movements. Journal of Communication, 22, 353–374.
19.
ErinJ. N., DignanK., & BrownP. A. (1991). Are social skills teachable?: A review of the literature. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 85, 58–61.
20.
FarkasG. M., SherickR. B., MatsonJ. L., & LoebigM. (1981). Social skills training of a blind child through differential reinforcement. Behavior Therapist, 4, 24–26.
21.
FichtenC. S., JuddD., TagalakisV., AmselR., & RobillardK. (1991). Communication cues used by people with and without visual impairments in daily conversations and dating. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 85, 371–378.
22.
FriesenW. V., & EkmanP. (1973). Classification of hand activity: Collated from memos of 10/6/73 and 12/18/73. Unpublished manuscript.
23.
HaymanA. (1972). Some developmental problems in blind babies and toddlers. In Leonard Conference on Research into the Visually Handicapped (pp. 125–130. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University.
24.
IversonJ. M., & Goldin-MeadowS. (1997). What's communication got to do with it? Gesture in children blind from birth. Developmental Psychology, 33, 453–467.
25.
KempN. J. (1980). Social interaction in the blind. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 3, 87–88.
26.
KendonA. (1981). Geography of gesture. Semiotica, 37, 129–163.
27.
KendonA. (1983). Gesture and speech: How they interact. In WiemannJ. M. & HarrisonR. P. (Eds.), Nonverbal interaction (pp. 13–45. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
28.
KendonA. (1987). On gesture: Its complementary relationship with speech. In SiegmanA. W. & FeldsteinS. (Eds.), Nonverbal behavior and communication (2nd ed., pp. 65–97. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
29.
KeppelG. (1991). Design and analysis: A researcher's handbook (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
30.
KimuraD. (1976). The neutral basis of language via gesture. In WhittakerH. & WhittakerH. A. (Eds.), Studies in neurolinguistics (Vol. 2, pp. 145–156. New York: Academic Press.
31.
KleckR. E., OnoH., & HastorfA. H. (1966). The effects of physical deviance upon face-to-face interaction. Human Relations, 19, 425–436.
32.
KnappM. L., & HallJ. A. (1992). Nonverbal communication in human interaction (3rd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Holt Rinehart & Winston.
33.
LaFranceM. (1974). Nonverbal cues to conversational turn-taking between black speakers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1, 140–242.
34.
LeathersD. G. (1992). Successful nonverbal communication: Principles and applications (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillian.
35.
ManlyL. (1980). Nonverbal communication of the blind. In Von Raffler-EngleW. (Ed.), Aspects of nonverbal communication (pp. 345–350. Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
36.
MarcyT. G. (1975). Sensory and perceptual dysfunctioning in early childhood: Some approaches to therapy.Los Angeles: School of Medicine, University of Southern California.
37.
McGinnisA. R. (1981). Functional linguistic strategies of blind children. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 75, 210–214.
38.
MillerB. S., & MillerW. H. (1976). Extinguishing “blindisms”: A paradigm for intervention. Education of the Visually Handicapped, 8, 6–15.
39.
MorrisD., CollettP., MarshP., & O'ShaughnessyM. (1979). Gestures: Their origins and distribution.New York: Stein & Day.
40.
PattersonM. L. (1983). Nonverbal behavior: A functional perspective.New York: Springer-Verlag.
41.
PetersonP. (1976). An investigation of sex differences in regard to nonverbal body gestures. In EakinsB., EakinsG., & Lieb-BrilhardB. (Eds.), Siscom ‘75: Women's (and men's) communication (pp. 20–27. Falls Church, VA: Speech Communication Association.
42.
RutterD. R. (1984). Looking and seeing: The role of visual communication in social interaction. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.
43.
SharkeyW. F., & StaffordL. (1990). Turn-taking resources employed by congenitally blind conversers. Communication Studies, 41, 161–182.
44.
ShimanoffS. B. (1980). Communication rules: Theory and research.Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
45.
ShuterR. (1979). A study of nonverbal communication among Jews and Protestants. Journal of Social Psychology, 109, 31–41.
46.
SpenceS. H. (1981). Validation of social skills of adolescent males in an interview conversation with a previously unknown adult. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 159–168.
47.
SpitzbergB. H., & CupachW. (1984). Interpersonal communication competence.Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
48.
StreeckJ. (1993). Gesture as communication I: Its coordination with gaze and speech. Communication Monographs, 60, 275–299.
49.
TaitP. (1972). Effect of circumstantial rejection on infant behavior. New Outlook, 66, 139–149.
50.
TrentS. D. (1987). The importance of social skills in the employment interview. Education of the Visually Handicapped, 19, 7–18.
51.
Van HasseltV B., SimonJ., & MastantuonoA. K. (1982). Social skills training for blind children and adolescents. Education of the Visually Handicapped, 14, 34–40.
