Behavioral models of community intervention are becoming increasingly prominent, but the application of behavior change procedures in community settings raises a number of practical and ethical problems. Basic impediments to program implementation are discussed and ameliorative recommendations are made. An emphasis is placed on broad assessment involving all elements of the community throughout program planning and conduct. Approaches to ethical issues in community behavior change are reviewed, and it is suggested that these ethical issues can only be adequately confronted by developing interventions designed to develop increasingly competent communities, skilled at assessing and modifying their own problem situations.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Psychological Association . Ethical standards for psychologists. American Psychologist, 1963, 18, 56-60.
2.
American Psychological Association , Committee on Scientific and Professional Ethics and Conduct. Ethical standards of psychologists, draft #7. American Psychological Association Monitor, 1975, 6, 18-19.
3.
American Psychological Association , Committee on Scientific and Professional Ethics and Conduct. Revised ethical standards of psychologists. American Psychological Association Monitor, 1977, 8, 22-23.
4.
Atthowe, J. M.Behavior innovation and persistence . American Psychologist, 1973, 28, 34-41.
5.
Bandura, A.Vicarious and self-reinforcement processes. In R. Glasser (Ed.), The nature of reinforcement. New York: Academic Press, 1971. Pp. 228-278.
Brisco, R. , Hoffman, D., & Bailey, J.Behavioral community psychology: Training a community board to problem solve. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1975, 8, 157-168.
10.
Burgess, R. , Clark, R., & Hendee, J.An experimental analysis of anti-litter procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1971, 4, 71-75.
11.
Chaiklin, H.Discussion and comment. In M. Shore and S. Golann (Eds.), Current ethical issues in mental health. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, 1973.
12.
Champlin, S. , & Karoly, P.Role of contract negotiation in self-management of study time: A preliminary investigation. Psychological Reports, 1975, 37, 724-726.
13.
Chapman, C. , & Risley, T.Anti-litter procedures in an urban high-density area. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 377-384.
14.
Chu, F. , & Trotter, S.The madness establishment: Ralph Nader's study group report on the National Institute of Mental Health. New York: Grossman, 1974.
15.
Clark, R. , Burgess, R., & Hendee, J.The development of anti-litter behavior in a forest campground. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5, 1-5.
16.
Davison, G. , & Stuart, R.Behavior therapy and civil liberties. American Psychologist, 1975, 30, 755-763.
17.
Deitz, S.Current status of applied behavior analysis: Science versus technology . American Psychologist, 1978, 33, 805-814.
18.
Emery Air Freight Corporation . Feedback systems. System Performance Division, Wilton, CT, 1971.
19.
Everett, P. , Haywood, S., & Meyers, A.The effects of a token reinforcement procedure on bus ridership. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 1-10.
20.
Foulkes, F. K.Creating more meaningful work. New York: AMA, 1969.
21.
Foxx, R. , & Hake, D.Gasoline conservation: A procedure for measuring and reducing the driving of college students. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977, 10, 61-74.
22.
Geller, E. , Farris, J., & Post, D.Prompting a consumer behavior for pollution control. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 367-376.
23.
Geller, E. , Witmer, J., & Tuso, M.Environmental interventions for litter control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1977, 62, 344-351.
24.
Golann, S.Ethical problems of research in the community. In M. Shore and S. Golann (Eds.), Current ethical issues in mental health. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, 1973.
25.
Goldiamond, I.Toward a constructional approach to social problems: Ethical and constitutional issues raised by applied behavior analysis . Behaviorism, 1974, 2, 1-85.
26.
Goldstein, A. P. , & Dean, S. I.The investigation of psychotherapy: Commentaries and readings. New York: John Wiley, 1966.
27.
Gordon, R.Effects of volunteering and responsibility on the perceived value and effectiveness of a clinical treatment . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44, 799-801.
28.
Hauserman, N. , Walen, S., & Behling, M.Reinforced racial integration in the first grade: A study in generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 193-200.
29.
Hermann, J. , de Montes, A., Dominquez, B., Montes, F., & Hopkins, B.Effects of bonuses for punctuality on the tardiness of industrial workers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 563-572.
30.
Holland, J.Ethical considerations in behavior modification. In M. Shore and S. Golann (Eds.), Current ethical issues in mental health. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, 1973.
31.
Holland, J.Behaviorism: Part of the problem or part of the solution?Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1978, 11, 163-174.
32.
Immergluck, L.Determinism-freedom in contemporary psychology: An ancient problem revisited . American Psychologist, 1964, 19, 270-281.
33.
Iscoe, I.Community psychology and the competent community . American Psychologist, 1974, 29, 607-613.
34.
Jason, L.Behavior community psychology: Conceptualizations and applications . Journal of Community Psychology, 1977, 5, 303-312.
35.
Jason, L. , & Kimbrough, C.A preventive education program for young economically disadvantaged children. Journal of Community Psychology, 1974, 2, 134-139.
36.
Kanfer, F. , & Karoly, P.Self-control: A behavioristic excursion into the lion's den. Behavior Therapy, 1972, 3, 398-416.
37.
Kazdin, A.Methodological and assessment consideration in evaluating reinforcement programs in applied settings . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 517-531.
38.
Kazdin, A. , & Wilcoxon, L.Systematic desensitization and nonspecific treatment effects: A methodological evaluation. Psychological Bulletin, 1976, 83, 729-758.
39.
Kohlenberg, R. , & Phillips, T.Reinforcement and the rate of litter-depositing. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 391-396.
40.
Kohlenberg, R. , Phillips, T., & Proctor, W.A behavioral analysis of peaking in residential electrical-energy consumers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1976, 9, 13-18.
41.
Krasner, L.Behavior control and social responsibility . American Psychologist, 1962, 17, 199-204.
42.
Landy, F. , & Trumbo, D.Psychology of work behavior. Homewood, IL.: Dorsey Press, 1976.
43.
Lisman, S. A.Ecological versus behavioral perspectives in treatment of the individual . Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Chicago, November 1974.
44.
Mahoney, M. , Kazdin, A., & Lesswing, N. J.Behavior modification: Delusion or deliverance. In C. M. Franks and G. T. Wilson (Eds.), Annual Review of behavior therapy and research Vol. 2. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1974. Pp. 11-40.
45.
McPhee, J.Coming into the country. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1976.
46.
Meyers, A. , Artz, L., & Craighead, W. E.The effects of instruction, incentive, and feedback on a community problem: Dormitory noise. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1976, 9, 445-458.
47.
Meyers, A. , Craighead, W. E., & Meyers, H.A behavioral-preventive approach to community mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 1974, 2, 275-285.
48.
Mischel, W.Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality . Psychological Review, 1973, 80, 252-283.
49.
Nietzel, M. , Winett, R.MacDonald, M., & Davidson, W.Behavioral approaches to community psychology. New York: Pergamon, 1977.
50.
Pelton, L.The psychology of nonviolence. New York: Pergamon, 1975.
51.
Phillips, E. L. , Phillips, E. A., Fixsen, D., & Wolf, M.Achievement place: Modification of the behaviors of predelinquent boys within a token economy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1971, 4, 45-60.
52.
Powers, R. , Osborne, J., & Anderson, E.Positive reinforcement of litter-removal in the natural environment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 579-586.
53.
Rappaport, J.Community Psychology: Values, research, and action. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1977.
54.
Reiss, M. , Piotrowski, W., & Bailey, J.Behavioral community psychology: Encouraging low-income parents to seek dental care for their children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1976, 9, 387-398.
55.
Repucci, N.Implementation issues for the behavior modifier as institutional change agent . Behavior Therapy, 1977, 8, 594-605.
56.
Repucci, N. , & Saunders, J.Social psychology of behavior modification: Problems of implementation in natural settings. American Psychologist, 1974, 29, 649-660.
57.
Rogers, C. R. , & Skinner, B. F.Some issues concerning the control of human behavior: A symposium. Science, 1956, 124, 1057-1066.
58.
Rosenthal, D.Changes in some moral values following psychotherapy . Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1955, 19, 431-436.
59.
Saunders, J. , & Repucci, N.The social identity of behavior modification. In M. Hersen, R. Eisler, and P. Miller (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification. Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press, 1978. Pp. 143-158.
60.
Schwitzgebel, R. K. , & Kolb, D.Changing human behavior: Principles of planned intervention. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974.
61.
Seaver, W. B. , & Patterson, A.Decreasing fuel oil consumption through feedback and social commendation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1976, 9, 147-152.
62.
Seligman, M.Helplessness. San Francisco: Freeman, 1975.
63.
Sherif, C. W.Orientation in social psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1976.
64.
Sherif, M. , & Sherif, C. W.An outline of social psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1956.
65.
Sherif, M. , & Sherif, C. W.Social psychology. New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
66.
Skinner, B. F.Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Knopf, 1971.
67.
Special Task Force to the Secretary of Health , Education and Welfare. Work in America. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1972.
68.
Stolz, S.Why no guidelines for behavior modification?Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1977, 10, 541-547.
69.
Stolz, S. , Wienckowski, L., & Brown, B.Behavior modification: A perspective on critical issues. American Psychologist, 1975, 30, 1027-1048.
70.
Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Ninety-third Congress, second session . Individual rights and the federal role in behavior modification. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1974.
71.
Warren, R.The community in America. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963.
72.
Willems, E.Behavioral technology and behavioral ecology , Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 151-165.
73.
Winett, R. , Kaiser, S., & Haberkorn, G.The effects of monetary rebates and daily feedback on electrical conservation. Journal of Environmental Systems, 1977, 6, 327-339.
74.
Wolfe, M.Social validity: The case for subjective measurements or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1978, 11, 203-214.
75.
Zax, M. , & Specter, G.An introduction to community psychology. New York: John Wiley, 1974.
76.
Zifferblatt, S. , & Hendricks, C.Applied behavior analysis of societal problems: Population change, a case in point. American Psychologist, 1974, 29, 750-761.
