Successful inclusion of students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in general education classrooms can be challenging and may require additional supports. This article provides information on recent trends in autism intervention research and a review of research that has addressed individualized and systemic interventions for promoting inclusion. Response to intervention and schoolwide positive behavior support are reviewed as organizational/ systems strategies relevant to preventing problems and improving social and academic outcomes for students with ASD. Additional individualized strategies that can be implemented within these models are described. A discussion of future research directions is provided.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
2.
BlaxillM. F. (2004). What’s going on? The question of time trends in autism. Public Health Report, 119, 536-551.
3.
Brown-ChidseyR.SteegeM. W. (2005). Response to intervention: Principles and strategies for effective practice. New York, NY: Guildford.
4.
BryanL. C.GastD. L. (2000). Teaching on-task and on-schedule behaviors to high functioning children with autism via picture activity schedules. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 553-567.
5.
CallahanK.RademacherJ. A. (1999). Using self-management strategies to increase the on-task behavior of a student with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1, 117-122.
6.
ChafouleasS. M.McDougalJ. L.Riley-TillmanT. C.PanahonC. J.HiltA. M. (2005). What do daily behavior report cards (DBRCs) measure? An initial comparison of DBRCs with direct observation for offtask behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 669-676.
7.
CroneD. A.HornerR. H.HawkenL. S. (2004). Responding to problem behavior in schools: The behavior education program. New York, NY: Guilford.
8.
CroslandK.ClarkeS.DunlapG. (in press). A trend analysis of participant and setting characteristics in autism intervention research. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities.
9.
DalyE. J.IIIMartensB. K.HamlerK. R.DoolE. J.EckertT. L. (1999). A brief experimental analysis for identifying instructional components needed to improve oral reading fluency. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 83-94.
10.
DettmerS.SimpsonR. L.MylesB. S.GanzJ. B. (2000). The use of visual supports to facilitate transitions of students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 15, 163-169.
11.
DunlapG.IovannoneR.KincaidD. (2008). Essential components for effective educational practices. In LuiselliJ.RussoD. C.ChristianW. P.WilczynskiS. M. (Eds.), Effective practices for children with autism: Educational and behavior support interventions that work (pp. 111-136). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
12.
DunlapG.IovannoneR.WilsonK.KincaidD.ChristiansenK.StrainP.EnglishC. (2010). Prevent–Teach–Reinforce: A school-based model of positive behavior support. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
13.
DunlapG.IovannoneR.WilsonK. J.KincaidD.StrainP. (2010). Prevent–Teach–Reinforce: A standardized model of school-based behavioral intervention. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12, 9-22.
14.
DunlapG.JohnsonJ. (1985). Increasing independent responding of autistic children with unpredictable supervision. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 227-236.
15.
DunlapG.KernL. (1997). Behavior analysis and its relevance to special education. In PaulJ. L.ChurtonM.Roselli-KostoryzH.MorseW.MarfoK.LavelyC.ThomasD. (Eds.), Foundations of special education: Basic knowledge informing research and practice in special education (pp. 279-290). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
16.
DunlapG.KoegelR. L.JohnsonJ.O’NeillR. E. (1987). Maintaining performance of autistic clients in community settings with delayed contingencies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 185-191.
17.
DunlapG.PlienisA. J.WilliamsL. (1987). Acquisition and generalization of unsupervised responding: A descriptive analysis. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 12, 274-279.
18.
DunlapG.StrainP.FoxL. (in press). Positive behavior support and young people with autism: Strategies of prevention and intervention. In KellyB.PerkinsD. F. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of implementation science for educational psychology. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
19.
DuPaulG. J.HenningsonP. N. (1993). Peer tutoring effects on the classroom performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Review, 22, 134-143.
20.
EmersonE.KiernanC.AlborzA. (2001). The prevalence of challenging behaviors: A total population study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 22, 77-93.
21.
FairbanksS.SugaiG.GuardinoD.LathropM. (2007). Response to Intervention: Examining classroom behavior support in second grade. Exceptional Children, 73, 288-310.
22.
FilterK. J.McKennaM. K.BenedictE. A.HornerR. H.ToddA. W.WatsonJ. (2007). Check in/check out: A post-hoc evaluation of an efficient, secondary-level targeted intervention for reducing problem behaviors in schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 30, 69-84.
23.
FombonneE. (2005). Epidemiology of autistic disorder and other pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 3-8.
24.
FoxL.CartaJ.StrainP.DunlapG.HemmeterM. L. (2010). Response to Intervention and the pyramid model. Infants and Young Children, 23, 3-14.
25.
FreemanR.EberL.AndersonC.IrvinL.HornerR.BoundsM.DunlapG. (2006). Building inclusive school cultures using school-wide positive behavior support: Designing effective individual support systems for students with significant disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 31, 4-17.
26.
FryxellD.KennedyC. H. (1995). Placement along the continuum of services and its impact on students’ social relationships. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 20, 259-269.
27.
FuchsD.FuchsL. S. (Eds.). (2007). Responsiveness to intervention [Special issue]. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39.
28.
GeorgeH. P.KincaidD. K. (2008). Building district-level capacity for positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10, 20-32.
29.
GreshamF. M.ReschlyD. J.TillyW. D.FletcherJ.BurnsM.ChristT.PrasseD.VanderwoodM.ShinnM.. (2005). A response to intervention perspective. The School Psychologist, 59, 26-33.
30.
GreshamR. M. (2005). Response to intervention: An alternative means of identifying students as emotionally disturbed. Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 328-344.
31.
HallL. J.McClannahanL. E.KrantzP. J. (1995). Promoting independence in integrated classrooms by teaching aides to use activity schedules and decreased prompts. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 30, 208-217.
32.
HandlanS.BloomL. A. (1993). The effects of educational curricula and the modeling/coaching on the interactions of kindergarten children and their peers with autism. Focus on Autistic Behavior, 8, 1-16.
33.
HarrowerJ. K.DunlapG. (2001). Including children with autism in general education classrooms: A review of effective strategies. Behavior Modification, 25, 762-784.
34.
HondaH.ShimizuY.MisumiK.NiimiM.OhashiY. (1996). Cumulative incidence and prevalence of childhood autism in children in Japan. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 228-235.
35.
HornerR. H.SugaiG. (2000). School-wide behavior support: An emerging initiative [Special issue]. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2, 231-232.
36.
HundertJ.HoughtonA. (1992). Promoting social interaction of children with disabilities in integrated preschools: A failure to generalize. Exceptional Children, 58, 311-320.
37.
HurthJ.ShawE.IzemanS. G.WhaleyK.RogersS. J. (1999). Areas of agreement about effective practices among programs serving young children with autism spectrum disorders. Infants and Young Children, 12, 17-26.
38.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (Pub. L. No. 108-446, 118 Stat. 2647).
39.
IovannoneR.GreenbaumP.WangW.KincaidD.DunlapG.StrainP. (2009). Randomized control trial of a tertiary behavior intervention for students with problem behaviors: Preliminary outcomes. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 17, 213-225.
40.
IveyM.HeflinL.AlbertoJ. (2004). The use of social stories to promote independent behaviors in novel events for children with PDD-NOS. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 19, 164-177.
41.
KampsD. M.BarbettaP. M.LeonardB. R.DelquadriJ. (1994). Classwide peer tutoring: An integration strategy to improve reading skills and promote peer interactions among students with autism and general education peer. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 49-61.
42.
KernL.SokolN. G.DunlapG. (2006). Assessment of antecedent influences on challenging behavior. In LuiselliJ. K. (Ed.), Antecedent intervention: Recent developments in community focused behavior support (pp. 53-71). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
43.
KielimenM.LinnaS. L.MoilanenI. (2000). Autism in northern Finland. European Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 1-9.
44.
KimY. S.LeventhalB. L.KohY. J.FombonneE.LaskaE.LimE.. . . GrinkerR. (2011). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in a total population sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 1-9. doi:10.1176/appl.ajp.2011.10101532
45.
KoegelL. K.HarrowerJ. K.KoegelR. L. (1999). Support for children with developmental disabilities in full inclusion classrooms though self-management. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 1, 26-34.
46.
KoegelL. K.KoegelR. L.HurleyC.FreaW. D. (1992). Improving social skills and disruptive behavior in children with autism through self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 341-353.
47.
KoegelR. L.KoegelL. K. (2006). Pivotal response treatments for autism: Communication, social, and academic development. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
48.
LewisT. J.SugaiG. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systems approach to proactive school-wide behavior management. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31, 1-24.
49.
LockeW. R.FuchsL. S. (1995). Effects of peer-mediated reading instruction on the on-task behavior and social interaction of children with behavior disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 3, 92-99.
50.
LuiselliJ. K.PutnamR. F.HandlerM. W.FeinbergA. B. (2005). Whole-school positive behaviour support: Effects on student discipline problems and academic performance. Educational Psychology, 25, 183-198.
51.
MacDuffG. S.KrantzP. J.McClannahanL. E. (1993). Teaching children with autism to use photographic activity schedules: Maintenance and generalization of complex response chains. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 89-97.
52.
MancinaC.TankersleyM.KampsD.KravitsT.ParrettJ. (2000). Brief report: Reduction of inappropriate vocalizations for a child with autism using a self-management treatment program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 599-606.
53.
ManningS. E.DavinC. A.BarfieldW. D.KotelchuckM.ClementsK.DiopH.. . . SmithL. A. (2011). Early diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in Massachusetts birth cohorts, 2001-2005. Pediatrics, 127, 1043-1051.
54.
MarholinD.SteinmanL. (1977). Stimulus control in the classroom as a function of the behavior reinforcers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 456-478.
55.
McGeeG. G.AlmeidaM. C.Sulzer-AzaroffB.FeldmanR. S. (1992). Promoting reciprocal interactions via peer incidental teaching. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 117-126.
56.
MorrisonL.KampsD.GarciaJ.ParkerD. (2001). Peer mediation and monitoring strategies to improve initiations and social skills for students with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 237-250.
57.
MunkD. D.DempseyT. L. (2010). Leadership strategies for successful schoolwide inclusion: The STAR approach. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
58.
National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with autism. Committee on educational interventions for children with autism. Division of behavioral and social sciences and autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
59.
NewschafferC. J.CroenL. A.DanielsJ.GiarelliE.GretherJ. K.LevyS. E.. . . WindhamG. C. (2007). The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders. Annual Review of Public Health, 28, 235-258.
60.
OlleyJ. G. (1999). Curriculum for students with autism. School Psychology Review, 28, 595-606.
61.
PierceK.SchreibmanL. (1997). Multiple peer use of pivotal response training social behaviors of classmates with autism: Results from trained and untrained peers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 157-160.
62.
RitvoE. R. (1989). The UCLA-University of Utah epidemiology survey of autism: Recurrence risk estimates and genetic counseling. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1032-1036.
63.
RogersS. J. (1999). Intervention for young children with autism: From research to practice. Infants and Young Children, 12, 1-16.
64.
RutterM. (2005). Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: Changes over time and their meaning. Acta Paediatrica, 94, 2-15.
65.
SailorW.DunlapG.SugaiG.HornerR. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of positive behavior support. New York, NY: Springer.
66.
SainatoD. M.StrainP. S.LefebvreD.RappN. (1987). Facilitating transition times with handicapped preschool children: A comparison between peer-mediated and antecedent prompt procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 285-291.
67.
SchreibmanL.WhalenC. (2000). The use of video priming to reduce disruptive transition behavior in children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Intervention, 2, 3-12.
68.
SeversonH. H.WalkerH. M.Hope-DoolittleJ.KratochwillT. R.GreshamF. M. (2007). Proactive, early screening to detect behaviorally at-risk students: Issues, approaches, emerging innovations, and professional practices. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 193-223.
69.
SimeonnsonR. J. (1991). Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention in early intervention. Journal of Early Intervention, 15, 124-134.
70.
SimonsenB.MyersD.BriereD. E.III (2010). Comparing a behavioral check-in/check-out (CICO) intervention to standard practice in an urban middle school setting using an experimental group design. Journal of Positive Behavior Intervention, 10, 1-18.
71.
StahmerA. C.SchreibmanL. (1992). Teaching children with autism appropriate play in unsupervised environments using a self-management package. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 447-459.
72.
SteinD. B. (1999). A medication-free parent management system program for children diagnosed with ADHD. Ethical Human Sciences and Services, 1, 61-79.
73.
StichterJ.ClarkeD.DunlapG. (2004). An analysis of trends regarding proactive and ecologically valid interventions in applied research. Education and Treatment of Children, 27, 86-104.
74.
StrainP. S.KohlerF. W.GoldsteinH. (1996). Peer-mediated interventions for young children with autism. In JensenP.HibbsT. (Eds.), Psychosocial treatments of child and adolescent disorders (pp. 573-586). Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health.
75.
StrainP. S.WilsonK.DunlapG. (2011). Prevent–Teach–Reinforce: Addressing problem behaviors of students with autism in general education. Behavior Disorders, 36, 160-171.
76.
SugaiG. (2007, December). Responsiveness-to-intervention: Lessons learned and to be learned. Keynote presentation at and paper for the RTI Summit, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC.
77.
SugaiG.HornerR. H. (2002). The evolution of discipline practices: School-wide positive behavior supports. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 24, 23-50.
78.
SugaiG.HornerR. H.DunlapG.HienemanM.LewisT. J.NelsonC. M.. . . WilcoxB. (2000). Applying positive behavior support and functional assessment in schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2, 131-143.
79.
ToddA. W.CampbellA. L.MeyerG. G.HornerR. H. (2008). The effects of a targeted intervention to reduce problem behaviors: Elementary school implementation of check in–check out. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10, 46-55.
80.
VaughnS.Linan-ThompsonS.HickmanP. (2003). Response to instruction as a means of identifying students with reading/learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69, 391-409.
81.
WildeL. D.KoegelL. K.KoegelR. L. (1992). Increasing success in school through priming: A training manual. Santa Barbara: University of California.
82.
ZanolliK.DaggettJ.AdamsT. (1996). Teaching preschool age autistic children to make spontaneous initiations to peers using priming. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 407-422.
