Advocates and critics alike have accepted 'lean' images of the Toyota production system. But certain production concepts that are integral to Toyota production system theory and practice actually impede 'leanness'. The most important of these are the concepts of heijunka, or levelled ('balanced') production, and muri, or waste from overstressing machines and personnel. Actual Toyota production systems exist as a compromise between these concepts and the pursuit of leanness via kaizen. The compromise between these contrasting tendencies is influenced by the ability of unions and other aspects of industrial relations regulation to counter practices such as shortnotice overtime and 'management by stress'.
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