The European Commission has identified labelling as a means of encouraging consumers to opt for water-efficient products. A common water label at the European level would help countries achieve water efficiency in a cohesive way. This paper examines some of the water labelling schemes currently implemented in countries around the world in order to draw together a knowledge-base of water labelling best practice. Mandatory labels are shown to be most effective at encouraging consumer uptake, while additional supportive information (such as product performance data and potential financial savings) would help inform consumer purchase decisions. Consideration of national implications, economic impact, regulation and enforcement and establishing impact indicators, are all shown to be vital components of an effective water labelling scheme.
Practical application: A Europe-wide water label would help promote the uptake of water-efficient products by providing consumers with information about the water consumption characteristics of products at the point of sale. It is intended that the water labelling best practice presented here is used by policy makers and regulators to help inform future initiatives in introducing a Europe-wide water label. Incorporating lessons from best practice will help ensure that such an initiative will achieve its full water-saving potential by encouraging consumer purchasing, and pushing market development, towards highly water-efficient products and, ultimately, reducing household water consumption.
InmanDJeffreyP. A review of residential water conservation tool performance and influences on implementation effectiveness. Urban Water J2006; 3(3): 127–143.
2.
WillisRMStewartRAPanuwatwanichK. Alarming visual display monitors affecting shower end use water and energy conservation in Australian residential households. Resour Conserv Recycl2010; 54: 1117–1127.
3.
Defra. Action taken by Government to encourage the conservation of water. Progress report to Parliament on the steps taken to encourage the conservation of water as required by Section 81 of the Water Act 2003. London: The Stationary Office, 2008.
EU Water Framework Directive. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing for the Community action in the field of water policy, 2000.
6.
Institute for International and European Environmental Policy. EU Water saving potential (Part 1 – Report). Report for the European Commission. Report no. ENV.D.2/ETU/2007/0001r, 19 July 2007.
7.
BIO Intelligence Service. Study on water efficiency standards. Report for the European Commission, DG Environment. Report no. 07037/2008/5208889/ETU/D2, July 2009.
8.
BIO Intelligence Service. Study on water performance of buildings. Report for the European Commission, DG Environment. Report no. 070307/2008/520703/ETU/D2, June 2009.
9.
BIO Intelligence Service. Water performance of buildings: Final report. Report for the European Commission, DG Environment. Report no. 070307/2010/579579/SER/D1, August 2012.
10.
AllonFSofoulisZ. Everyday water: Cultures in transition. Austr Geograp2006; 37(1): 45–55.
11.
MillockKNaugesC. Household adoption of water-efficient equipment: The role of socio-economic factors, environmental attitudes and policy. Environ Resour Econom2010; 46(4): 539–565.
12.
BealCStewartRAFieldingK. A novel mixed method smart metering approach to reconciling differences between perceived and actual residential end use water consumption. J Clean Prod2011; 60(1): 116–128.
13.
EU Energy Labelling Directive. Directive 92/75/EC, 1992.
14.
Kelly DA. The European water label: An analysis and review. In: CIBW062 International symposium on water supply and drainage for buildings, Nagano, Japan, 17–20 September 2013, paper no. B16, pp. 393–404. Nagano: Shinshu University.
15.
Mayer PW, Deoreo WB and Lewis DM. Seattle home water conservation study: The impacts of high efficiency plumbing fixture retrofits in single-family homes. Submitted to: Seattle Public Utilities and USEPA by Aquacraft, Inc. Water Engineering and Management, Boulder, Colorado, 2000.
16.
MayerPWDeoreoWBTowlerE. Residential indoor water conservation study: evaluation of high efficiency indoor plumbing fixture retrofits in single-family homes in the East Bay municipal utility district (EDMUD) service area, The United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003.
17.
Mayer P, DeOreo W, Towler E, et al. Tampa Water Department residential water conservation study: impacts of high efficiency plumbing fixture retrofits in single-family homes. Tampa: Aquacraft, Inc. Water Engineering and Management, 2004.
18.
Maddaus WO. Residential water conservation projects: Summary report. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Research, Washington, D.C., 1984.
19.
AWWArf. Socioeconomic impacts of water conservation2001. Report no. 90817, 2001.
20.
LeeMTanselBBalbinM. Urban sustainability incentives for residential water conservation: Adoption of multiple high efficiency appliances. Water Resour Manage2013; 27(7): 2531–2540.
Keeting T and Styles M. Performance assessment of low flush volume toilets. Final Report for Southern Water and the Environment Agency, September 2004.
23.
CampbellHEJohnsonRMHunt-LarsonE. Prices devices, people, or rules: The relative effectiveness of policy instruments in water conservation. Rev Policy Res2004; 21(5): 637–662.
24.
GraymoreMLMWallisAM. Water savings or water efficiency? Water-use attitudes and behaviour in rural and regional areas. Int J Sustain Develop World Ecol2010; 17(1): 84–93.
25.
The Blue Angel Environmental Label. www.blauer-engel.de (accessed 1 June 2014).
Wilkenfeld G. Regulation impact statement: Proposed national system of mandatory water efficiency labelling for selected products. Report for the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australia by George Wilkenfeld and Associated Pty Ltd, May 2004.
31.
Australian Government Water Rating Labels. Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) scheme, www.waterrating.gov.au (accessed 1 June 2014).
32.
Public Utility Board. Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme (Voluntary and Mandatory). PUB, Republic of Singapore, 2013.
33.
Public Utility Board. The National Water Agency for Singapore, www.pub.gov.sg (accessed 1 June 2014).
34.
Batista JM, Almeida MC, Vieira P, et al. Programa Nacional para o Uso Eficiente da Agua, 2001.
35.
Silva-AfonsoAPimentel-RodriguesC. The importance of water efficiency in buildings in Mediterranean countries. The Portuguese experience. Int J Syst Appl Eng Develop2011; 5(1): 17–24.
36.
Voluntary Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme on Showers for Bathing. Water Supplies Department, Hong Kong, 2011.
37.
Water Supply Department. The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, www.wsd.gov.hk (accessed 1 June 2014).
38.
WELL–Water Efficiency Labelling. Classification scheme for sanitary valves. European Valve Manufacturers Association, April 2011.
39.
The WELL Water Efficiency Label. www.well-online.eu (accessed 1 June 2014).
40.
The Water Label. The Water Label European Industry Scheme: To promote both consumer and professional awareness of water delivery equipment2013. June 2013.
Chong J, Kasagalis A and Giurco D. Cost effectiveness analysis of WELS: Final report. Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney, 2008.
43.
Guest C. Independent review of the Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards Scheme. Report for the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, June 2010.
44.
Adeyeye K. Beyond the minimum requirements: policy-led strategies for increasing water efficiency in buildings. EPSRC/Defra Policy Fellowship Summary Report, 2011.
45.
DolnicarSHurlimannA. Australian's water conservation behaviours and attitudes. Austr J Water Resour2010; 14(1): 43–53.
46.
Market Transformation Programme. WCs: Market projections and product details. Report no. BNWAT01, Version 1.0, 2011.
47.
Defra. Behavioural economics and energy using products: Scoping research on discounting behaviour and consumer reference points. Final Report. Published by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2010.
Clarke A, Grant N and Thornton J. Quantifying the energy and carbon effects of water saving. Report for the Environment Agency and the Energy Saving Trust, 2009.
50.
Silva-AfonsoAPimentel-RodriguesCWater policy for buildings: A Portuguese perspective. In: AdeyeyeK (ed). Water efficiency in buildings: Theory and practice, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 2014, pp. 42–55.
51.
Szann A. WELS check testing – Showers and toilets. Report for the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Compiled by Access Product Information Consultants, 2012.
52.
GellerSEEricksonJBButtramBA. Attempts to promote residential water conservation with educational, behavioural and engineering strategies. Popul Environ1983; 6(2): 96–112.
53.
OlmsteadSMStavinsRN. Comparing price and nonprice approaches to urban water conservation. Water Resour Res2009; 45(4): W04301.
54.
United Utilities. Water and energy efficient showers. Project Report, 2007.
55.
McLennan Magasanik Associates. Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards scheme supply chain scoping and compliance. Report for the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, South Melbourne, 2010.
