This article presents a unified model for cognitive processing, WICS, which is an acronym for wisdom, intelligence, and creativity, synthesized. The model can be applied to identification/admissions, diagnosis, instruction, and assessment. I discuss why there is a need for such a model. Then I describe traditional models, after which I describe the WICS model. The article attempts to show how the WICS model can be applied to admissions/identification as well as to instruction and assessment.
Anderson, J.R. ( 1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2.
Anderson, J.R. ( 1991). The adaptive nature of human categorization. Psychological Review, 98, 409-429.
3.
Anderson, J.R. ( 1993). Rules of the mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
4.
Baltes, P.B. ( 1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundations of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366-380.
5.
Binet, A., & Simon, T. ( 1916). The development of intelligence in children. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins. (Originally published in 1905).
6.
Borkowski, J.G., & Cavanaugh, J.C. (1979). Maintenance and generalization of skills and strategies by the retarded. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency, psychological theory, and research (2nd edn., pp. 569-617). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
7.
Bouchard, T.J. ( 1998). Genetic and environmental influences on adult intelligence and special mental abilities. Human Biology, 70, 257-279.
8.
Butterfield, E.C., & Belmont, J.M. ( 1977). Assessing and improving the cognitive functions of mentally retarded people. In I. Bialer & M. Sternlicht (Eds.), The psychology of developmental disability: Issues and approaches. New York, NY: Psychological Dimensions.
9.
Campione, J.C., Brown, A.L., & Ferrara, R. ( 1982). Developmental disability and intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of human intelligence (pp. 392-490). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
10.
Carroll, J.B. ( 1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
11.
Cattell, R.B. ( 1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth and action. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Chart, H., Grigorenko, E.L., & Sternberg, R.J. (2008). Identification: The Aurora Battery. In J. A. Plucker & C. M. Callahan (Eds.), Critical issues and practices in gifted education (pp. 281-301). Waco, TX: Prufrock.
14.
Deary, I.J. ( 2000). Simple information processing and intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 267-284). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
15.
Demetriou, A., Efklides, A., & Platsidou, M. ( 1993). The architecture and dynamics of developing mind. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58(5-6), Serial No. 234.
16.
Dewey, J. ( 1997). Experience and education. New York, NY: Free Press.
17.
Dickens, C. ( 1854/2007). Hard times for these times. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
18.
Dunloski, J., & Metcalfe, J. ( 2008). Metacognition: A textbook for cognitive, educational, life span and applied psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
19.
Feuerstein, R. ( 1979). The dynamic assessment of retarded performers: The learning potential assessment device, theory, instruments, and techniques. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
20.
Feuerstein, R. ( 1980). Instrumental enrichment: An intervention program for cognitive modifiability. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
Galton, F. ( 1883). Inquiry into human faculty and its development. London: Macmillan.
23.
Gardner, H. ( 1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences . New York, NY: Basic Books.
24.
Gardner, H. ( 1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York, NY: Basic Books.
25.
Gardner, H. ( 1999). Are there additional intelligences? The case for naturalist, spiritual, and existential intelligences. In J. Kane (Ed.), Education, information, and transformation (pp. 111-131). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
26.
Gopnik, A., & Meltzoff, A. ( 1997). Words, thoughts, and theories. Cambridge: MA: MIT Press.
27.
Goswami, U. ( 1996). Analogical reasoning and cognitive development. In H. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 26). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
28.
Grigorenko, E.L., Jarvin, L., & Sternberg, R.J. (2002). School-based tests of the triarchic theory of intelligence: Three settings, three samples, three syllabi . Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 167-208.
29.
Grigorenko, E.L., Jarvin, L., Tan, M., & Sternberg, R.J. (2008). Something new in the garden: assessing creativity in academic domains. Psychology Science Quarterly, 50, 295-307.
Gustafsson, J.E. ( 1988). Hierarchical models of the structure of cognitive abilities . In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (Vol. 4, pp. 35-71). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
32.
Hedlund, J., Wilt, J.M., Nebel, K.R., Ashford, S.J., & Sternberg, R.J. (2006). Assessing practical intelligence in business school admissions: A supplement to the graduate management admissions test. Learning and Individual Differences, 16, 101-127.
33.
Herrnstein, R.J., & Murray, C. ( 1994). The bell curve. New York, NY: Free Press.
34.
Hezlett, S., Kuncel, N., Vey, A., Ones, D., Campbell, J., & Camara, W.J. ( 2001). The effectiveness of the SAT in predicting success early and late in college: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council of Measurement in Education, Seattle, WA.
35.
Horn, J.L. ( 1994). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The encyclopedia of human intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 443-451). New York, NY: Macmillan.
36.
Hunt, E.G., Frost, N., & Lunneborg, C. ( 1973). Individual differences in intelligence: A new approach to cognition. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 87, pp. 87-122). New York, NY: Academic Press.
37.
Jensen, A.R. ( 1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger/ Greenwood .
38.
McNeil, N.M., Uttal, D.H., Jarvin, L., & Sternberg, R.J. (2009). Should you show me the money? Concrete objects both hurt and help performance on mathematics problems . Learning and Instruction, 19, 171-184.
39.
Ravitch, D. ( 2009, September 15). Critical thinking? You need knowledge. Boston Globe, 276(177), A15.
Schaie, K.W., & Willis, S.L. ( 1986). Can decline in intellectual functioning in the elderly be reversed? Developmental Psychology, 22, 223-232.
42.
Siegler, R.S. ( 1996). Emerging minds: The process of change in children’s thinking. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
43.
Siegler, R., & Jenkins, E.A. ( 1989). How children discover new strategies. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
44.
Spearman, C. ( 1904). ‘General intelligence’, objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293.
45.
Spearman, C. ( 1927). The abilities of man. London: Macmillan.
46.
Stemler, S.E., Grigorenko, E.L., Jarvin, L., & Sternberg, R.J. (2006). Using the theory of successful intelligence as a basis for augmenting AP exams in psychology and statistics . Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31(2), 344-376.
47.
Stemler, S., Sternberg, R.J., Grigorenko, E.L., Jarvin, L., & Sharpes, D.K. ( 2009). Using the theory of successful intelligence as a framework for developing assessments in AP Physics. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 195-209.
48.
Sternberg, R.J. ( 1997). Successful intelligence. New York, NY: Plume.
49.
Sternberg, R.J. ( 2001). Why schools should teach for wisdom: The balance theory of wisdom in educational settings. Educational Psychologist , 36, 227-245.
50.
Sternberg, R.J. ( 2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
51.
Sternberg, R.J. ( 2005). Foolishness. In R. J. Sternberg & J. Jordan (Eds.), Handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives (pp. 331-352). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
52.
Sternberg, R.J. ( 2006). How can we simultaneously enhance both academic excellence and diversity? College and University, 81, 17-23.
53.
Sternberg, R.J. ( 2007). Finding students who are wise, practical, and creative . The Chronicle of Higher Education, 53(44), B11.
54.
Sternberg, R.J. ( 2009). The Rainbow and Kaleidoscope projects: A new psychological approach to undergraduate admissions. European Psychologist , 14, 279-287.
55.
Sternberg, R.J., Forsythe, G.B., Hedlund, J., Horvath, J., Snook, S., Williams, W.M., Wagner, R.K., & Grigorenko, E.L. (2000). Practical intelligence in everyday life. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
56.
Sternberg, R. J. & Grigorenko, E. L. (Eds.) (2002). The general factor of intelligence: How general is it?Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sternberg, R.J., Grigorenko, E.L., Ferrari, M., & Clinkenbeard, P. (1999). A triarchic analysis of an aptitude-treatment interaction. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 15, 1-11.
59.
Sternberg, R.J., Grigorenko, E.L., & Zhang, L.F. ( 2008). Styles of learning and thinking matter in instruction and assessment. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 486-506.
60.
Sternberg, R.J., Jarvin, L., & Grigorenko, E.L. (2009). Teaching for wisdom, intelligence, creativity, and success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
61.
Sternberg, R.J., & Lubart, T.I. ( 1995). Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity. New York, NY: Free Press.
62.
Sternberg, R.J., & The Rainbow Project Collaborators. ( 2006). The Rainbow Project: Enhancing the SAT through assessments of analytical, practical and creative skills. Intelligence , 34, 321-350.
63.
Sternberg, R.J. ( 2010). College admissions for the 21st century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
64.
Sternberg, R.J., Torff, B., & Grigorenko, E.L. (1998). Teaching triarchically improves school achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology , 90, 374-384.
65.
Sternberg, R.J., & Williams, W.M. (1996). How to develop student creativity. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
66.
Thurstone, L.L. ( 1938). Primary mental abilities. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
67.
Vernon, P.E. ( 1971). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen.
68.
Wechsler, D. ( 2003). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (4th edn.), (WISC-IV). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
69.
Wissler, C. ( 1901). The correlation of mental and physical tests. Psychological Review, Monograph Supplement, 3(6).