This exploratory investigation sought both to gain a better understanding of the mental representations of attachment in high-risk, maltreated adolescents and to explain how, if at all, unresolved attachment representations are related to behavioural maladjustment. Parent ratings, self-report ratings and attachment state of mind were obtained from 34 adolescents with a history of maltreatment. Results showed that maltreated adolescents with unresolved states of mind in regard to attachment were rated higher on maladaptive behaviour and lower on adaptive behaviour than maltreated adolescents who were resolved. Implications for school-based mental health intervention and future research are discussed.
Allen, J.P., Hauser, S.T. and Borman-Spurrell, E. (1996) `Attachment Theory as a Framework for Understanding the Sequelae of Severe Adolescent Psychopathology: An 11-Year Follow-Up Study', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology64(2): 254—63.
2.
Bernier, A. and Dozier, M. (2002) `The Client-Counselor Match and the Corrective Emotional Experience: Evidence from Interpersonal and Attachment Research' , Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training39(1): 32—43.
3.
Bowlby, J. (1969/1982) Attachment and Loss, Volume 1New York: Basic Books.
4.
Bowlby, J. (1980) Attachment and Loss, Volume 3. New York: Basic Books.
5.
Carlson, E.A. (1998) `A Prospective Longitudinal Study of Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment', Child Development69: 1107—28.
6.
Cichetti, D. and Toth, S.L. (1995) `A Developmental Psychopathology Perspective on Child Abuse and Neglect', Journal of the American Academy on Child and Adolescent Psychiatry34: 1067—91.
7.
Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., DeRosa, R., Hubbard, R., Kagan, R., Liautaud, J., Mallah, K., Olafson, E. and van der Kolk, B. (2005) `Complex Trauma in Children and Adolescents', Psychiatric Annals35: 390—93.
8.
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinard, T.L., Fabes, R.A., Shepard, S.A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B.C., Losoya, S.H. and Guthrie, I.K. (2001) `The Relations of Regulation and Emotionality to Children's Externalizing and Internalizing Problem Behavior', Child Development72(4): 1112—34.
9.
Fonagy, P. and Bateman, A.W. (2006) `Mechanisms of Change in Mentalization-Based Treatment of BPO', Journal of Clinical Psychology62(4): 411—30.
10.
Fonagy, P., Twemlow, S., Vernberg, E., Sacco, F. and Little, T. (2005) `Creating a Peaceful School Learning Environment: The Impact of a Anti-Bullying Program on Educational Attainment in Elementary Schools', Medical Science Monitor11(7): 317—25.
11.
George, C. and Solomon, J. (1996) `Representational Models of Relationships: Links Between Caregiving and Representation', Infant Mental Health Journal17: 198—216.
12.
George, C. and West, M. (2001) `The Development and Preliminary Validation of a New Measure of Adult Attachment: The Adult Attachment Projective', Attachment andHuman Development3: 30—61.
13.
George, C. and West, M. (in press) The Adult Attachment Projective: A New Assessment of Adult Attachment. New York: Guilford Publications .
14.
George, C., West, M. and Pettem, O. (1997) The Adult Attachment Projective. Unpublished Attachment Measure and Coding Manual. Mills College, Oakland, CA.
15.
Glass, G.V. and Hopkins, K.D. (1996) Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology , 3rd edn. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
16.
Grotevant, H.D., van Dulmen, M.H.M., Dunbar, N., Nelson-Christinedaughter, J., Christensen, M., Fan, X. and Miller, B.C. (2006) `Antisocial Behavior of Adoptees and Nonadoptees: Prediction from Early History and Adolescent Relationships', Journal of Research on Adolescence16: 105—31.
17.
Kobak, R.R. (1999) `The Emotional Dynamics of Disruptions in Attachment Relationships: Implications for Theory, Research, and Clinical Intervention ', in J. Cassidy and P. R. Shaver (eds) Handbook of Attachment , pp. 21—43. New York: Guilford Press.
18.
Main. M. and Goldwyn, R. (1985/1991/1994) Adult Attachment Scoring and Classification Systems. Unpublished Classification Manual. University of California, Berkeley, CA.
19.
Main, M. and Hesse, E. (1990) `Parents' Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are Related to Infant Disorganized Attachment Status: Is Frightened and/or Frightening Parental Behavior the Linking Mechanism?', in M. T. Green-berg, D. Cicchetti and E. M. Cummings (eds) Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention, pp. 161—82. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
20.
McCabe, K.M., Lucchini, S.E., Hough, R.L., Yeh, M. and Hazen, A. (2005) `The Relation Between Violence Exposure and Conduct Problems Among Adolescents: A Prospective Study', American Journal of Orthopsychiatry75: 575—84.
21.
Moss, E., Rousseau, D., Parent, S., St-Laurent, D. and Saintonge, J. (1998) `Correlates of Attachment at School Age: Maternal Reported Stress, Mother—Child Interaction, and Behavior Problems', Child Development69: 1390—405.
22.
Reynolds, C.R. and Kamphaus, R.W. (1998) Behavioral Assessment System for Children: Technical Manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc.
23.
Rogosch, F.A., Cicchetti, D. and Aber, J.L. (1995) `The Role of Child Maltreatment in Early Deviations in Cognitive and Affective Processing Abilities and Later Peer Relationship Problems', Development and Psychopathology7: 591—601.
24.
Ryan, J. and Testa, M.F. (2005) `Child Maltreatment and Juvenile Delinquency: Investigating the Role of Placement and Placement Instability', Children and Youth Services Review27(3): 227—49.
25.
Shonk, S.M. and Cicchetti, D. (2001) `Maltreatment, Competency Deficits, and Risk for Academic and Behavioral Maladjustment', Developmental Psychology37(1): 3—17.
26.
Slade, A. (2004) `The Move from Categories to Process: Attachment Phenomena and Clinical Evaluation', Infant Mental Health Journal25(4): 269—83.
27.
Solomon, J. and George, C. (1996) `Defining the Caregiving System: Toward a Theory of Caregiving', Infant Mental Health Journal17: 183—97.
28.
Solomon, J., George, C. and DeJong, A. (1995) `Children Classified as Controlling at Age Six: Evidence of Disorganized Representational Strategies and Aggression at Home and at School', Development and Psychopathology7: 447—63.
29.
Toth, S., Manly, J.T. and Cichetti, D. (1992) `Child Maltreatment and Vulnerability to Depression' , Development and Psychopathology4: 97—112.
30.
Twemlow, S.W., Fonagy, P. and Sacco, F.C. (2005a) `A Developmental Approach to Mentalizing Communities: I. A Model for Change', Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic69(4): 265—81.
31.
Twemlow, S.W., Fonagy, P. and Sacco, F.C. (2005b) `A Developmental Approach to Mentalizing Communities: II. The Peaceful Schools Experiment', Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic69(4): 282—304.
32.
van IJzendoorn, M.H., Schuengel, C. and Bakermanns-Kranenburg, M.J. (1999) `Disorganized Attachment in Early Childhood: Meta-Analysis of Precursors, Concommittants, and Sequelae ', Development and Psychopathology11: 225—49.
33.
Vondra, J.I., Barnett, D. and Cicchetti, D. (1990) `Self-Concept, Motivation, and Competence Among Maltreating and Comparison Families', Child Abuse and Neglect14: 525—40.
34.
Warren, S.L., Huston, L., Egeland, B. and Sroufe, L.A. (1997) `Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders and Early Attachment', Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry36(5): 637—44.
