It has been argued that the application of self-report inventories in investigation of the self has permitted a set of 'esoteric psychometric qualities' (Bracken, 1992) to determine psychological understanding of the self-concept. The desire to achieve solid psychometric foundations for measures ofthe selfhas meant that the self-concept is often measured as an independent entity, separate from the contexts in which it is constructed. This article describes the development of a new measure of the self that takes greater account of the way individuals ruminate their external actions to inform and maintain their self-image. An item pool designed to measure the social impact of the school context upon the self was tested on adolescent school pupils (n = 1,002) from eight contrasting secondary schools in the UK. Factor analysis revealed six structurally independent constructs related to pupils' school related self-perceptions. The ensuing scale revealed how it is possible to utilize psychometric techniques to produce more ecological means of investigating the self. The implications of this study for existing measures of the self are then discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Bakhurst, D. and Sypnowich, C. (1995) 'Problems ofthe Social Self, in D. Bakhurst and C. Sypnowich (eds) The Social Self. London: SAGE Publications.
2.
Bertens, H. (1995) The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. London: Routledge.
3.
Bolton, B. (1976) 'Factor Validity of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale', Psychological Reports39: 947-954.
4.
Boyne, R. and Rattansi, A. (1993) 'The Theory and Politics of Postmodernism', in R. Boyne and A. Rattansi (eds)Postmodernsim and Society. London: Macmillan Press.
Cattell, R.B. (1966) 'The Scree Test for the Number of Factors', Multivariate Behavioural Research1: 245-276.
7.
Clarke, C.J.S. (1996) Reality Through the Looking-Glass. Edinburgh: Floris Books.
8.
Combs, A.W. (1981) 'Some Observations on Self-Concept Research and Theory', in M.D. Lynch, A.A. Norem Hebeisen and K.J. Gergen (eds) Self-Concept: Advances in Theory and Research. Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing Company.
9.
Cooley, C.H. (1902) Human Nature and the Social Order. London: Transaction Publishers.
10.
Deaux, K. (1991) 'Social Identities: Thoughts on Structure and Change', in R. Curtis (ed.) The Relational Self. London: The Guildford Press.
11.
Demo, D.H. (1985) 'The Measurement of Self-Esteem: Refining our Methods', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology48(6): 1490-1502.
12.
Finlay-de Monchy, M. (1995) 'Narcissism: Pathology of the Post-Modern Self or Healthy and Socially Progressive Investment of the Interests of Self-Centred Subject-hood?', Free Associations5(4): 453-482.
13.
Fitts, W.H. and Warren, W.L. (1996) Tennessee Self-Concept Scale: Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
14.
Flesch, R. (1951) How to Test Readability. New York: Harper and Brothers.
15.
Flum, H. and Porton, H. (1995) 'Relational Processes and Identity Formation in Adolescence', Genetic, Social and General Psychology121(4): 369-389.
16.
Gecas, V. (1972). 'Parental Behaviour and Contextual Variations in Adolescent Self-Esteem', Sociometry35: 332-345.
17.
Gergen, K.J. (1971) The Concept of the Self. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
18.
Gergen, K.J. (1981) 'The Self in Applied Settings', in M.D. Lynch, A.A. NoremHebeisen and K.J. Gergen (eds) Self-Concept: Advances in Theory and Research. Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing Company.
19.
Gergen, K.J. (1987) 'Toward Self as a Relationship', in K. Yardley and T. Honess (eds) Self and Identity: Psychosocial Perspectives. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
20.
Gergen, K.J. (1991) The Saturated Self. New York: Basic Books.
21.
Gergen, K.J. (1994a) Realities and Relationships. London: Harvard University Press.
22.
Gergen, K.J. (1994b) 'Toward a Postmodern Psychology', in S. Kvale (ed.) Psychology and Postmodernism. London: SAGE Publications.
23.
Gergen, K.J. (1996) 'The Healthy, Happy Human Being Wears Many Masks', in W. Truett-Anderson (ed.) The Fontana Post-Modern Reader. London: Fontana Press.
24.
Glass, J.M. (1993) Shattered Selves: Multiple Personality in a Postmodern World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
25.
Griffin, N. , Chassin, L. and Young, R.D. (1981) 'Measurement of Global SelfConcept Verses Multiple Role Specific Self-Concepts in Adolescence', Adolescence16: 49-56.
26.
Gronlick, W.S. and Ryan, R.M. (1989) 'Parent Styles Associated with Children's Self Regulation and Competence in School', Journal of Educational Psychology81: 143-154.
27.
Grotevant, H.D. and Cooper, C.R. (1986) 'Individuation in Family Relationships', Human Development. 29: 83-100.
28.
Hair, J.F. , Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. and Black, W.C. (1995) Multivariate Data Analysis. Englewood, Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
29.
Harre, R. (1983) Personal Being. Oxford: Blackwell.
30.
Harter, S. (1985) Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Denver, CO: University of Denver Press.
31.
Harter, S. (1988a) Manualforthe Self-PerceptionProfile forAdolescents. Denver, CO: University of Denver.
32.
Harter, S. (1988b) 'Developmental Processes in the Construction of Self, in T.D. Yawkey and J.E. Johnson (eds), Integrative Processes and Socialization. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
33.
Hattie, J. (1992) Self-Concept. Hove: Erlbaum.
34.
Hill, J.P. and Holmbeck, G.N. (1986)'Attachment andAutonomyDuringAdolescence', in G.J. Whitehurst (ed.), Annals of Child Development. Greenwich: JAI Press.
35.
Jenkins, G.D. and Taber, T.D. (1977) 'A Monte Carlo Study of the Factors Affecting Three Indices of Composite Scale Reliability', Journal of Applied Psychology62: 392-398.
36.
Josselson, R. (1992) The Space Between Us: Exploring the Dimensions of Human Relationships. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
37.
Kondo, D. (1982) 'Work, Family and the Self: A Cultural Analysis of Japanese Family Enterprise', Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, cited in H.R. Markus and S. Kitayama (1991) 'Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion and Motivation', Psychological Review 98(2): 224-53.
38.
Kvale, S. (1994) 'Postmodern Psychology: A Contradiction in Terms?', in S. Kvale (ed.) Psychology and Postmodernism. London: SAGE Publications.
39.
Lissitz, R.W. and Green, S.B. (1975) 'Effect of the Number of Scale Points on Reliability: A Monte Carlo approach', Journal of Applied Psychology60: 10-13.
40.
Livesley, W.J. and Bromley, D.B. (1973) Person Perception in Childhood and Adolescence. London: John Wiley.
41.
Lokke, C. , Gersch, I., M'gadzah, H. and Frederickson, N. (1997) The Resurrection of Psychometrics: Fact or Fiction?Educational Psychology in Practice, 12(4): 222-233.
42.
Looren de Jong, H. (1997) 'Some Remarks on a Relational Concept of Mind', Theory and Psychology7(2): 147-172.
43.
Lyotard, J.F. (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
44.
Markus, H.R. and Nurius, P. (1986) 'Possible Selves', American Psychologist41: 954-969.
45.
Markus, H.R. and Kitayama, S. (1991) 'Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion and Motivation', Psychological Review98(2): 224-253.
46.
Marsh, H.W. (1986) 'Global Self-Esteem: Its Relation to Specific Facets of SelfConcept and their Importance', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology51(6): 1224-1236.
47.
Marsh, H.W. (1991) Self-Description Questionnaire I: Manual. Sydney: University of Western Sydney.
48.
Marsh, H.W. and Shavelson, R. (1985)'Self-Concept: Its Multifaceted, Hierarchical Structure', Educational Psychologist20(3): 107-123.
49.
McAdams, D.P. (1995) 'What Do We Know When We Know a Person?', Journal of Personality63(3): 365-396.
50.
Mead, G.H. (1934) Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
51.
Miller, S.A. and Davis, T.L. (1992) 'Beliefs About Children: A Comparative Study of Mothers, Teachers, Peers, and Self, Child Development63: 1251-1265.
52.
Norris, C. (1990) What's Wrong with Postmodernism: Critical Theory and the Ends of Philosophy. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
53.
O'Hara, M. (1992) 'Relational Humanism: A Psychology for a Pluralistic World', The Humanistic Psychologist20(2 and 3): 439-446.
54.
Oyserman, D. and Markus, H.R. (1990) 'Possible Selves and Delinquency', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology59: 112-125.
55.
Parish, T.S. and McCluskey, J.J. (1994) 'The Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Young Adults' Self-Concepts and Evaluations of Parents', Family Therapy21(3): 223-226.
56.
Polkinghorne, D.E. (1994) 'Postmodern Epistemology of Practice', in S. Kvale (ed.) Psychology and Postmodernism. London: SAGE Publications.
57.
Rosenberg, M. (1979) Conceiving the Self. New York: Basic Books.
58.
Rosenberg, M. (1986) 'Self-Concept from Middle Childhood Through Adolescence', in J. Suls and A.G. Greenwald (eds), Psychological Perspectives on the Self,Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
59.
Ryan, R.M. (1991) 'The Nature of the Self in Autonomy and Relatedness', in J. Strauss and G.R. Goethals (eds) The Self: Interdisciplinary Approaches. London: Springer-Verlag.
60.
Ryan, R.M. and Lynch, J. (1989) 'Emotion Autonomy Verses Detachment: Revisiting the Vicissitudes of Adolescence and Young Adulthood', Child Development60: 340-356.
61.
Schell, T.L. , Klein, S.B. and Babey, S.B. (1996) 'Testing a Hierarchical Model of Self Knowledge', Psychological Science7(3): 170-173.
62.
Seligman, S. and Shanok, R.S. (1995) 'Subjectivity, Complexity and Social World: Erikson's Identity Concept and Contemporary Relational Theories', Psychoanalytic Dialogues5(4): 537-565.
63.
Shotter, J. (1975) Images of Man in Psychological Research. London: Methuen.
64.
Shotter, J. (1980) 'Action, Joint Action and Intentionality', in M. Brenner (ed.) The Structure of Action. Oxford: Blackwell.
65.
Shotter, J. (1984) Social Accountability and Selfhood. Oxford: Blackwell.
66.
Shotter, J. (1994) 'Getting in Touch: The Meta-Methodology of a Postmodern Science of Mental Life', in S. Kvale (ed.), Postmodernism and Psychology. London: SAGE Publications.
67.
Strube, M.J. and Roemmele, L.A. (1985) 'Self-Enhancement, Self-Assessment, and Self Evaluative Task Choice', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology49: 981-993.
68.
Stryker, S. (1987) 'Identity Theory: Developments and Extensions', in K. Yardley and T. Honess (eds) Self and Identity: Psychosocial Perspectives. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
69.
Tomlinson, H. (1989) 'After Truth: Postmodernism and the Rhetoric of Science', in H. Lawson and L. Appignanesi (eds)Dismantling Truth. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
70.
Westen, D. (1992) 'The Cognitive Self and the Psychoanalytic Self: Can we Put Our Selves Together', Psychological Inquiry3: 1-13.
71.
Wichstrom, L. (1995) 'Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents: Reliability, Validity, and Evaluation of the Question Format', Journal of Personality Assessment65(1): 100-116.
