Fractured neck of femur: prevention and management.The Royal College of Physicians of London, 1989
3.
MeltonL.J., RiggsB.L.Epidemiology of age-related fractures. In: AvioliLV, ed. The osteoporotic syndrome.New York: Grune and Stratton, 1983: 45–72
4.
SolomonL.Osteoporosis and fracture of the femoral neck in the South African Bantu. J Bone Joint Surg1969; 50B: 2–13
5.
BollettA.J., EnghG., ParsonW.Epidemiology of osteoporosis: sex and race incidence of hip fractures. Arch Intern Med1965; 116: 191–4.
6.
LauE.M.C.Personl communication
7.
BastowM.D., RawlingsJ., AllisonS.P.Undernutrition, hypothermia and injury in elderly with fractured femur: an injury response to altered metabolism?Lancet1983; i: 143–6.
8.
AaronJ.E., GallagherJ.C., AndersonJ.C.Frequency of osteomalacia and osteoporosis in fractures of the proximal femur. Lancet1974; i: 229–33.
9.
BoyceW.J., VesseyM.P.Rising incidence of fracture of the proximal femur. Lancet1985; i: 150-1
10.
MeltonL.J., O'FallonW.M., RiggsB.L.Secular trends in the incidence of hip fractures. Calcif Tissue Int1987; 41: 57–64.
SmithR.W., RizekJ.Epidemiologic studies of osteoporosis in women of Puerto Rico and Southeastern Michigan with special reference to age, race, national origin and other related or associated findings. Clin Orthop1966; 45: 31–48.
13.
JensenG.F., ChristiansenC., BoesenJ., HegedusV., TransbolI.Epidemiology of postmenopausal spinal and long bone fractures. Clin Orthop1982; 166: 75–81.
IskrantA.P., SmithR.W.Osteoporosis in women aged 45 years and over related to subsequent fractures. Public Health Rep1969; 84: 33–8.
16.
MeltonL.J.Epidemiology of fractures. In: RiggsB.L., MeltonL.J., eds. Osteoporosis: etiology, diagnosis and management.New York: Raven Press, 1988: 133–54
17.
PogrundH., MakinM., RobinG., MenczelJ., SteinbergR.Osteoporosis in patients with fractured femoral neck in Jerusalem. Clin Orthop1977; 124: 165–72.
18.
MillerS.W.M., EvansJ.G.Fractures of the distal forearm in Newcastle: an epidemiological study. Age Aging1985; 14: 155–8.
19.
AlfframP.A., BauerG.C.H.Epidemiology of fractures of the forearm. J Bone Joint Surg1962; 42A: 105–14.
20.
OwenR.A., MeltonL.J., JohnsonK.A., IlstrupD.M., RiggsB.L.Incidence of Colles fracture in a North American community. Am J Public Health1982; 72: 605–7.
21.
RalisZ.A.Epidemic of fractures during periods of snow and ice. Br Med J1982; 282: 603–5.
22.
TrotterM.I., BromanG.E., PetersonR.R.Densities of bones of white and negro skeletons. J Bone Joint Surg1960; 42A: 50–8.
23.
ArnoldJ.S., BartleyM.H., ToutS.A., JenkinsD.P.Skeletal changes in aging and disease. Clin Orthop1966; 49: 17–38.
24.
BarnettE., NordinB.E.C.The radiological diagnosis of osteoporosis. Clin Radiol1960; 11: 166–74.
25.
MurbyM., FogelmanI.Bone mineral measurements in clinical practice. Br J Hosp Med1987; 37: 453–8.
26.
MazessR.B.Estimation of bone and skeletal weight by direct photon absorptiometry. Invest Radiol1971; 6: 52–60.
27.
ChristiansenC., RodbroP., JensenH.Bone mineral content in the forearm measured by photon absorptiometry. Scand J Clin Lab Invest1975; 35: 323–30.
28.
NielsenS.P., KrolnerB.Photonbeam absorptiometry. In: DixonA St J eds. Osteoporosis. A multidisciplinary problem.London: Academic Press, 1983: 105–8
29.
MazessR., CollickB., TrempeJ., BardenH., HansonJ.Performance evaluation of a dual energy X-ray bone densitometer. Calcif Tissue Int1989; 44: 228–32.
30.
RiggsB.L., MeltonL.J.Involutional osteoporosis. N Engl J Med1986; 314: 1676–86.
31.
RiggsB.L., WahnerH.W., DunnW.L., MazessR.B., OffordK.P., MeltonL.J.Differential changes in bone mineral density of the appendiculae and axial skeleton with aging. J Clin Invest1982; 67: 328–35.
32.
CohnS.H., AbesamisC., YasamuraS., AloiaJ.F., ZanziI., EllisK.J.Comparative skeletal mass and radial bone mineral content in black and white women. Metabolism1977; 26: 171–8.
33.
Bone density in aging Caucasian and African populations. Lancet1979; ii: 1326–9.
34.
YanoK., WasnichR.D., VogelJ.M., HeilbrunL.K.Bone mineral measurements among middle-aged and elderly Japanese residents in Hawaii. Am J Epidemiol1984; 119: 751–64.
35.
ReidI.R., MackieM., IbbertsonH.K.Bone mineral content in Polynesian and white New Zealand women. Br Med J1986; 292: 1547–8.
36.
WeaverJ.K., ChalmersJ.Cancellous bone: its strength and changes with aging and an evaluation of some methods for measuring its mineral content. J Bone Joint Surg1966; 48A: 289–308
37.
LeichterI., MarguliesJ.Y., WeinrebA., MizrahiJ., RobinG.C., ConfortyB., MakinM., BlochB.The relationship between bone density, mineral content and mechanical strength in thè femoral neck. Clin Orthop1982; 163: 272–81.
38.
HeaneyR.P.Qualitative factors in osteoporotic fracture: the state of the question. In: ChristiansenC, eds. Osteoporosis 1987, 1. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Osteoporosis, Denmark, 1987.Copenhagen, Osteopress ApS, 1987: 281–7
39.
CannC.E., GenantH.K., KolbF.O., EttingerB.Quantitative computed tomography for prediction of vertebral fracture risk. Bone1985; 6: 1–7.
40.
HorsmanA., MarshallD.H., PeacockM.A stochastic model of age-related bone loss and fractures. Clin Orthop1985; 195: 207–15.
41.
CummingsS.R.Are patients with hip fractures more osteoporotic? A review of the evidence. Am J Med1985; 78: 487–94.
42.
CooperC., BarkerD.J.P., MorrisJ., BriggsR.S.J.Osteoporosis, falls and age in fracture of the proximal femur. Br Med J1987; 295: 13–15.
43.
HorowitzM., WishartJ.M., BochnerM., NeedA.G., ChattertonB.E., NordinB.E.C.Mineral density of bone in premenopausal women with fractured wrists. Br Med J1988; 297: 1314–15.
44.
HuntK., VesseyM.P.Longterm effects of post menopausal hormone therapy. Br J Hosp Med1987; 38: 450–60.
45.
RossP.D., WasnichR.D., VogelJ.M.Detection of pre-fracture spinal osteoporosis using bone mineral absorptiometry. J Bone Mineral Res1988; 3: 1–11.
46.
CummingsS.R., BlackD.Should perimenopausal women be screened for osteoporosis?Ann Intern Med1986; 104: 817–23.
47.
HallF.M., DavisM.A., Bar anD.T.Bone mineral screening for osteoporosis. N Engl J Med1987; 316: 212–14.
48.
WasnichR.D., RossP.D., HeilbrunL.K., VogelJ.M.Prediction of postmenopausal fracture risk with use of bone mineral measurements. Am J Obstet Gynecol1985; 153: 745–51.
49.
SmithD.M., NanceW.E., KangK.W., ChristiansenJ.C., JohnstonC.C.Genetic factors in determining bone mass. J Clin Invest1973; 52: 2800–8.
50.
DequekerJ., NijsJ., VerstraetenA., GeusensP., GeversG.Genetic determinants of bone mineral content at the spine and radius: a twin study. Bone1987; 8: 207–9.
51.
KandersB., DempsterD.W., LindsayR.Interaction of calcium nutrition and physical activity on bone mass in young men. J Bone Mineral Res1988; 3: 145–9.
52.
CannC.E., GenantH.K., EttingerB., GordanG.S.Spinal mineral loss of oopherectomised women: determination by quantitative computed tomography. JAMA1980; 244: 2056–9.
53.
CooperC., BarkerD.J.P., WickhamC.Physical activity, muscle strength and calcium intake in fracture of the proximal femur in Britain. Br Med J1988; 297: 1443–6.
54.
KanisJ.A., PassmoreR.Calcium supplementation of the diet - II. Br Med J1989; 298: 205–8.
55.
RiggsB.L., WahnerH.W., MeltonL.J., RichelsonL.S., JuddH.L., O'FallonW.M.Dietary calcium intake and rates of bone loss in women. J Clin Invest1987; 80: 979–82.