Medical Theories on the Cause of Death in Crucifixion

Hengel M. Crucifixion in the Ancient World, and the Folly of the Message of the Cross, transl Bowden J. London: SCM Press, 986

Stroud W. A Treatise on the Physical Cause of the Death of Christ. London: Hamilton & Adams, 1847

Josephus F. In: Rufinus T. , ed. De Bello Iudaico. Lugduni: Sebastian Germa, 1528: 323–4

Seneca L.A. In: Michaelis H.C. , ed. De Consolatione ad Marciam. Harlem: Vincent Loosjes, 1840

Retief F.P. , Cilliers L. The history and pathology of crucifixion. S Afr Med J 2003; 93: 938–41

Holoubek J.E. , Holoubek A.B. Execution by crucifixion: history, methods and cause of death. J Med 1995; 26: 1–16

DeBoer S.L. , Maddow C.L. Emergency care of the crucifixion victim. Accid Emerg Nurs 2002; 10: 235–9

Ball D.A. The crucifixion and death of a man called Jesus. J Miss State Med Assoc 1989; 30: 77–83

Tzaferis V. Jewish tombs at and near Giv'at ha-Mivtar, Jerusalem. Israel Explor J 1970; 20: 18–32

Haas N. Anthropological observations on the skeletal remains from Giv'at ha-Mivtar. Israel Explor J 1970; 20: 38–59

Zias J. , Sekeles E. The crucified man from Giv'at ha-Mivtar: a reappraisal. Israel Explor J 1985; 35: 22–7

Zugibe F.T. The Crucifixion of Jesus: a Forensic Enquiry. New York: M Evans, 2005

Damon P.E. , Donahue D.J. , Gore B.H. . Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin. Nature 1989; 337: 611–15

Bollone P.B. The Shroud Under the Microscope: Forensic Examination, transl Neame A. High Wycombe: St Pauls, 1998

Davis C.T. The crucifixion of Jesus: the passion of Christ from a medical point of view. Ariz Med 1965; 22: 183–7

LeBec A. The death of the cross: a physiological study of the passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Catholic Med Guardian 1925; 3: 126–32

Wijffels F. Death on the cross: did the Turin Shroud once envelop a crucified body? Br Soc Turin Shroud Newsl 2000; 52(3)

Barbet P. A Doctor at Calvary: the Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon, transl The Earl of Wicklow. New York: Image Books, 1963: 87

Edwards W.D. , Gabel W.J. , Hosmer F.E. On the physical cause of death of Jesus Christ. JAMA 1986; 255: 1455–63

Brenner B. Did Jesus Christ die of pulmonary embolism? J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3: 1–2

Wilkinson J. The physical cause of the death of Christ. Expository Times 1972; 83: 104–7

Lloyd-Davies M. , Lloyd-Davies T.A. Resurrection or resuscitation? J Roy Coll Phys Lond 1991; 25: 167–70