Metabolic Syndrome: Maladaptation to a Modern World

Reaven G.M. The role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 1988; 37: 1595–1607

Seidell J.C. , Flegal K.M. Assessing obesity: classification and epidemiology. Br Med Bull 1997; 53: 238–52

Prentice A.M. Epidemiology and health risks of obesity. Topical Endocrinol 1997; 6: 2–4

Quetelet M.A. A Treatise on Man and the Development of his Faculties. Edinburgh: Chambers, 1842: 63–7

Loutan L. , Lamotte J.M. Seasonal variations in nutrition among a group of nomadic pastoralists in Niger. Lancet 1984; i: 945–7

Zimmet P. Globalization, coca-colonization and the chronic disease epidemic: can the Doomsday scenario be averted? J Intern Med 2000; 247: 301–10

Illich I. Medical Nemesis. Lancet 1974; i: 918–21

Shakespeare W. Henry IV, Part I, Act II, scene iv

Britz B. , Siegfried W. , Ziegler A. . Rates of psychiatric disorders in a clinical study group of adolescents with extreme obesity and in obese adolescents ascertained via a population based study. Int J Obesity Rel Metabol Disord 2000; 24: 1707–14

Colditz G.A. , Willett W.C. , Rotnitzky A. , Manson J.E. Weight gain as a risk factor for clinical diabetes mellitus in women. Ann Intern Med 1995; 122: 481–6

Chan J.M. , Rimm E.B. , Colditz G.A. , Stampfer M.J. , Willett W.C. Obesity, fat distribution, and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 961–9

Wilkin T.J. Endocrine feedback control in health and disease. In: Bittar E.E. , Bittar N. , eds. The Principles of Medical Biology. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1998, 1–28

Himsworth H.P. Diabetes: its differentiation into insulin sensitive and insulin insensitive. Lancet 1936; i: 127–30

Day D. Population-based screening with the Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factor Calculator. Adv Ther 2001; 18: 21–32

Bonora E. , Kiechl S. , Willeit J. . Prevalence of insulin resistance in metabolic disorders: the Bruneck Study. Diabetes 1998; 47: 1643–9

Austin M.A. , King M.C. , Vranizan K.M. , Krauss R.M. Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. A proposed genetic marker for coronary heart disease risk. Circulation 1990; 82: 495–506

Enzi G. , Busetto L. , Carraro R. Association of multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease and visceral obesity. A deadly quartet or sextet? In: Ditshunheit H. ., eds. Obesityin Europe. London: Libbey, 1994: 411–18

Robinson S. , Henderson A.D. , Gelding S.V. . Dyslipidaemia is associated with insulin resistance in women with polycystic ovaries. Clin Endocrinol 1996; 44: 277–84

Agarwal S.K. , Judd H.L. , Magoffin D.A. A mechanism for the suppression of estrogen production in polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 3686–91

Laitinen J. , Taponen S. , Martikainen H. . Body size from birth to adulthood as a predictor of self-reported polycystic ovary syndrome symptoms. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2003; 27: 710–5

Christian R.C. , Dumesic D.A. , Behrenbeck T. , Oberg A.L. , Sheedy PF 2nd , Fitzpatrick L.A. Prevalence and predictors of coronary artery calcification in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 2562–8

Asuncion M. , Calvo R.M. , San Millan J.L. , Sancho J. , Avila S. , Escobar-Morreale H.F. A prospective study of the prevalence of the polycystic ovary syndrome in unselected Caucasian women from Spain. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85: 2434–8

Azziz R. , Woods K.S. , Reyna R. , Key T.J. , Knochenhauer E.S. , Yildiz B.O. The prevalence and features of the polycystic ovary syndrome in an unselected population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 2745–9

Seely E.W. , Solomon C.G. Insulin resistance and its potential role in pregnancy-induced hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 2393–8

Chang C.K. , Ulrich C.M. Hyperinsulinaemia and hyperglycaemia: possible risk factors of colorectal cancer among diabetic patients. Diabetologia 2003; 46: 595–607.

Furberg A.S. , Veierod M.B. , Wilsgaard T. , Bernstein L. , Thune I. Serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, metabolic profile, and breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 1152–60

Norman R.J. , McVeigh E. Polycystic ovary syndrome and implications for the menopause. Climacteric 1999; 2: 141–3

McElroy S.L. , Kotwal R. , Malhotra S. , Nelson E.B. , Keck P.E. , Nemeroff C.B. Are mood disorders and obesity related? A review for the mental health professional. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 634–51

Vague J. The degree of masculine differentiation in obesity as a factor determining predisposition to diabetes, atherosclerosis, gout and uric calculous disease. Am J Clin Nutr 1956; 4: 20–34

Voss L.D. , Metcalf B.S. , Jeffery A.N. . Preventable factors in childhood that lead to insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus and the metabolic syndrome: the EarlyBird Diabetes Study (1). J Pediatr Endocr Metab 2003; 16: 1211–24

Gambacciani M. , Ciaponi M. , Cappagli B. , Benussi C. , De Simone L. , Genazzani A.R. Climacteric modifications in body weight and fat tissue distribution. Climacteric 1999; 2: 37–44

Kershaw E.E. , Flier J.S. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 2548–56

Pantanetti P. , Garrapa G.G. , Mantero F. , Boscaro M. , Faloia E. , Venarucci D. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ? A review of recent data related to cardiovascular complications of endocrine dysfunctions. Clin Exp Hypertens 2004; 26: 387–98

Correia M.L. , Haynes W.G. Leptin, obesity and cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2004; 13: 215–23

Meier U. , Gressner A.M. Endocrine regulation of energy metabolism: review of pathobiochemical and clinical chemical aspects of leptin, ghrelin, adiponectin, and resistin. Clin Chem 2004; 50: 1511–25

Diez J.J. , Iglesis P. The role of the novel adipocyte-derived hormone adiponectin in human disease. Eur J Endocrinology 2003; 148: 293–300

Arita Y. , Kihara S. , Ouchi N. . Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 257: 79–83

Stefan N. , Bunt J.C. , Salbe A.D. , Funahashi T. , Matsuzawa Y. , Tataranni P.A. Plasma adiponectin concentrations in children: relationships with obesity and insulinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 4652–6

Fruebis J. , Tsao T.S. , Javorschi S. . Proteolytic cleavage product of 30-kDa adipocyte complement-related protein increases fatty acid oxidation in muscle and causes weight loss in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98: 2005–10

Ouchi N. , Kihara S. , Arita Y. . Adipocyte-derived plasma protein, adiponectin, suppresses lipid accumulation and class A scavenger receptor expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages. Circulation 2001; 103: 1057–63

Yang W.S. , Jeng C.Y. , Wu T.J. . Synthetic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist, rosiglitazone, increases plasma levels of adiponectin in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2002; 25: 376–80

Hirose H. , Kawai T. , Yamamoto Y. . Effects of pioglitazone on metabolic parameters, body fat distribution, and serum adiponectin levels in Japanese male patients with type 2 diabetes. Metabolism 2002; 51: 314–7

Park K.G. , Park K.S. , Kim M.J. . Relationship between serum adiponectin and leptin concentrations and body fat distribution. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2004; 63: 135–42

Machann J. , Haring H. , Schick F. , Stumvoll M. Intramyocellular lipids and insulin resistance. Diabetes Obes Metab 2004; 6: 239–48

Brunt E.M. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Semin Liver Dis 2004; 24: 3–20

Bjorntorp P. , Rosmond R. The metabolic syndrome—a neuroendocrine disorder? Br J Nutr 2000; 83 Suppl 1: S49–57

Carey D.G. , Jenkins A.B. , Campbell L.V. , Freund J. , Chisholm D.J. Abdominal fat and insulin resistance in normal and overweight women: direct measurements reveal a strong relationship in subjects at both low and high risk of NIDDM. Diabetes 1996; 45: 633–8

Zavaroni I. , Bonora E. , Pagliara M. . Risk factors for coronary artery disease in healthy persons with hyperinsulinemia and normal glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 702–6

Despres J.P. , Lemieux I. , Prud'homme D. Treatment of obesity: need to focus on high risk abdominally obese patients. BMJ 2001; 322: 716–20

Pouliot M.C. , Després J.P. , Lemieux S. . Waist circumference and abdominal sagittal diameter: best simple anthropometric indexes of abdominal visceral adipose tissue accumulation and related cardiovascular risk in men and women. Am J Cardiol 1994; 73: 460–8

Lemieux S. , Prud'homme D. , Tremblay A. , Bouchard C. , Despres J.P. Anthropometric correlates to changes in visceral adipose tissue over 7 years in women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1996; 20: 618–24

Drake A.J. , Smith A. , Betts P.R. , Crowne E.C. , Shield J.P. Type 2 diabetes in obese white children. Arch Dis Child 2002; 86: 207–8

Aye T. , Levitsky L.L. Type 2 diabetes: an epidemic disease in childhood. Curr Opin Pediatr 2003; 15: 411–15

Hales C.N. , Barker D.J. , Clark P.M. . Fetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64. BMJ 1991; 303: 019–22

Barker D.J. In utero programming of chronic disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 1998; 95: 115–28

Lucas A. , Fewtrell M.S. , Cole T.J. Fetal origins of adult disease—the hypothesis revisited. BMJ 1999; 319: 245–9

Wilkin T.J. , Metcalf B.S. , Murphy M.J. , Kirkby J. , Jeffery A.N. , Voss L.D. The relative contributions of birth weight, weight change, and current weight to insulin resistance in contemporary 5-year-olds: the EarlyBird Study. Diabetes 2002; 51: 3468–72

Onkamo P. , Vaananen S. , Karvonen M. , Tuomilehto J. Worldwide increase of type 1 diabetes—analysis of the data on published incidence trends. Diabetologia 1999; 42: 1395–403

Wilkin T.J. The Accelerator Hypothesis: weight gain as the missing link between type I and type II diabetes. Diabetologia 2001; 44: 914–22

Baum J.D. , Ounsted M. , Smith M.A. Weight gain in infancy and subsequent development of diabetes mellitus in childhood. Lancet 1975; ii: 866

Hypponen E. , Virtanen S.M. , Kenward M.G. , Knip M. , Akerblom H.K. Obesity, increased linear growth, and risk of type 1 diabetes in children. Childhood Diabetes in Finland Study Group. Diabetes Care 2000; 23: 1755–60

Kibirige M. , Metcalf B.S. , Mallam K. , Renuka R. , Wilkin T.J. Testing the Accelerator Hypothesis (1): The relationship between body mass and age at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 2865–70

Betts P. , Mulligan J. , Ward P. , Smith B. , Wilkin T.J. Increasing body weight predicts the earlier onset of insulin dependant diabetes in childhood: testing the ‘Accelerator Hypothesis’ (2). Diabetic Med (in press)

Hermann R. , Knip M. , Veijola R. . Temporal changes in the frequencies of HLA genotypes in patients with type 1 diabetes—indication of an increased environmental pressure? Diabetologia 2003; 46: 420–5

Hathout E.H. , Thomas W. , El-Shahawy M. , Nahab F. , Mace J.W. Diabetic autoimmune markers in children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes. Pediatrics 2001; 107: E102

Umpaichitra V. , Banerji M.A. , Castells S. Autoantibodies in children with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2002; 15 suppl 1: 525–30

Dandona P. , Aljada A. , Bandyopadhyay A. Inflammation: the link between insulin resistance, obesity and diabetes. Trends Immunol 2004; 25: 4–7

Wilkin T. , Ludvigsson J. , Greenbaum C. , Palmer J. , Becker D. , Bruining J. Future intervention trials in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 996–7

Shafrir E. , Raz I. Diabetes: mellitus or lipidus? Diabetologia 2003; 46: 433–40

[http://www.nice.org.uk/pdf/NICE_INHERITEG_guidelines.pdf]

Matthews D.R. , Cull C.A. , Stratton I.M. , Holman R.R. , Turner R.C. UKPDS 26: sulphonylurea failure in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients over six years. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Diabet Med 1998; 15: 297–303

Sharma A.M. , Golay A. Effect of orlistat-induced weight loss on blood pressure and heart rate in obese patients with hypertension. J Hypertens 2002; 20: 1873–8

Fleischmann E.H. , Friedrich A. , Danzer E. , Gallert K. , Walter H. , Schmieder R.E. Intensive training of patients with hypertension is effective in modifying lifestyle risk factors. J Hum Hypertens 2004; 18: 127–31

Shargorodsky M. , Wainstein J. , Gavish D. . Treatment with rosiglitazone reduces hyperinsulinemia and improves arterial elasticity in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Hypertens 2003; 16: 617–22

Tuomilehto J. , Lindstrom J. , Eriksson J.G. . Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 1343–50

Knowler W.C. , Barrett-Connor E. , Fowler S.E. . Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 393–403

Cox K.L. , Burke V. , Morton A.R. , Beilin L.J. , Puddey I.B. Independent and additive effects of energy restriction and exercise on glucose and insulin concentrations in sedentary overweight men. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 80: 308–16

Hundal R.S. , Inzucchi S.E. Metformin: new understandings, new uses. Drugs 2003; 63: 1879–94

Camejo G. , Ljung B. , Oakes N. Pharmacological treatment of insulin resistance in obesity. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2001; 11: 275–84

Sarnblad S. , Kroon M. , Aman J. Metformin as additional therapy in adolescents with poorly controlled type 1 diabetes: randomised placebo-controlled trial with aspects on insulin sensitivity. Eur J Endocrinol 2003; 149: 323–9

Vrbikova J. , Cibula D. , Dvorakova K. . Insulin sensitivity in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 2942–5

Ben-Haroush A. , Yogev Y. , Fisch B. Insulin resistance and metformin in polycystic ovary syndrome. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2004; 115: 125–33

Dabelea D. , Pettitt D.J. Intrauterine diabetic environment confers risks for type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity in the offspring, in addition to genetic susceptibility. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2001; 14: 1085–91