Abstract
Filipino (im)migrant workers are highly represented in essential sectors in Canada. They contribute to society but experience racism, more so during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using interpretive phenomenology from their narratives, I posit a rethinking of essential work beyond its labor value and recognize embodied complexities and intersections of Filipino lives in Alberta. Doing essential work creates social good based on their demonstrations of social agency, from volunteering to creating alternative spaces of belonging. A culturally nuanced approach makes essential work and social good connected in diverse ways, especially during challenging times.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abad
RG
(2005 ) Social capital in the Philippines: results from a national survey . Philippine Sociological Review 53 : 1 –57 .
2.
ABS-CBN
(2020 ) Why Canada’s COVID-19 response relied on Filipino frontliners . Balitang America , 20 December . Available at : https://www.facebook.com/balitangamerica/videos/why-canadas-covid-19-response-relied-on-filipino-frontliners/
3.
Addo
IY
(2020 ) Double pandemic: racial discrimination amid coronavirus disease 2019 . Social Sciences & Humanities Open 2 (1 ): 100074 .
4.
Agrawal
S
Schuster
AM
Britt
N
, et al. (2022 ) Expendable to essential? Changing perceptions of gig workers on Twitter in the onset of COVID-19 . Information, Communication & Society 25 (5 ): 634 –653 .
5.
Aloisi
A
De Stefano
V
(2022 ) Essential jobs, remote work and digital surveillance: addressing the COVID-19 pandemic panopticon . International Labour Review 161 (2 ): 289 –314 .
6.
Alook
A
Block
S
Galabuzi
G
(2021 ) A disproportionate burden: COVID-19 labour market impacts on indigenous and racialized workers in Canada . Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives , 7 December . Available at : https://policyalternatives.ca/publications/reports/disproportionate-burden
7.
Anderson
B
Poeschel
F
Ruhs
M
(2021 ) Rethinking labour migration: COVID-19, essential work, and systemic resilience . Comparative Migration Studies 9 : 45 .
8.
Aquino
K
(2017 ) Racism and Resistance Among the Filipino Diaspora: Everyday Anti-racism in Australia . Taylor & Francis .
9.
Auld
A
(2022 ) Asian Canadians felt unsafe due to discrimination linked to the COVID-19 pandemic,. study shows . Dal News , 14 June . Available at : https://www.dal.ca/news/2022/06/14/asian-canadians-covid-discrimination.html
10.
Austen
I
(2023 ) Alberta election tests conservatives hard right . The New York Times , 26 May . Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/26/canada-alberta-election-conservative-party.html
11.
Backhouse
C
(1999 ) Colour-coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900–1950 . University of Toronto Press .
12.
Bailey
I
(2023 ) Conservative MPs criticized for meeting with anti-immigration German politician . The Globe and Mail , 24 February . Available at : https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-tories-play-down-appearance-with-right-wing-german-party-member/
13.
Balintec
V
(2022 ) 2 years into the pandemic, anti-Asian hate is still on the rise in Canada, report shows . CBC News , 3 April . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/2-years-into-the-pandemic-anti-asian-hate-is-still-on-the-rise-in-canada-report-shows-1.6404034
14.
Bannerji
H
(2000 ) Dark Side of the Nation: Essays on Multiculturalism, Nationalism and Gender . Canadian Scholars .
15.
Barber
M
(2006 ) Domestic service (caregiving) in Canada . The Canadian Encyclopedia , February 7 . Available at : https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/domestic-service
16.
Bartko
K
(2023 ) Danielle smith photo with protesters charged in ‘freedom convoy’ raises eyebrows . Global News , April 27 . Available at : https://globalnews.ca/news/9656570/danielle-smith-photo-calgary-fundraiser-freedom-convoy/
17.
Baylon
J
(2021 ) What history can tell us about working as an immigrant nurse in Canada . Toronto Star , 3 May . Available at : https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2021/05/03/what-history-can-tell-us-about-working-as-an-immigrant-nurse-in-canada.html
18.
Block
S
Galabuzi
GE
(2011 ) Canada’s colour coded labour market. Canadian Centre for policy alternatives and the Wellesley institute . March . Available at : https://homelesshub.ca/sites/default/files/Colour_Coded_Labour_MarketFINAL.pdf
19.
Bricker
D
(2021 ) Strong majority of Canadians support vaccination mandates; open to measures including vaccine passports . Ipsos , August 19 . Available at : https://www.ipsos.com/en-ca/news-polls/majority-of-canadians-support-vaccination-mandates
20.
Brieger
SA
De Clercq
D
Meynhardt
T
(2021 ) Doing good, feeling good? Entrepreneurs’ social value creation beliefs and work-related well-being . Journal of Business Ethics 172 (4 ): 707 –725 .
21.
Cachero
P
(2021 ) From AIDS to COVID-19, America’s medical system has a long history of relying on Filipino nurses to fight the frontlines . Time , 30 May . Available at : https://www.yahoo.com/now/aids-covid-19-america-medical-110030334.html
22.
Canadian Filipino Net
(2022 ) Census 2021: Filipinos just shy of a million mark in Canada . News , 1 November . Available at : https://www.canadianfilipino.net/news/census-2021-filipinos-just-shy-of-a-million-mark-in-canada
23.
Canadian Institute for Health Information
(2017 ) Canada’s senior’s population outlook: unchartered territory . Available at : https://www.cihi.ca/en/infographic-canadas-seniors-population-outlook-uncharted-territory
24.
CBC News
(2022 a) Alberta to lift remaining COVID-19 restrictions , June 13 . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/alberta-lifts-remaining-covid-restrictions-1.6487506
25.
CBC News
(2022 b) Vaccine mandate opponents across Canada met by counter-protesters, heavy police presence , February 5 . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/convoy-pandemic-protests-canada-feb5-2022-1.6340910
26.
CBC News
(2023 ) Dr. Deena Hinshaw, ousted from Alberta, moves to job with B.C. public health leaders , February 1 . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/dr-deena-hinshaw-bc-public-health-dr-bonnie-henry-1.6733177
27.
Chan
A
(2014 ) The Chinese Head Tax and Anti-Chinese Immigration Policies in the Twentieth Century . James Lorimer & Company Ltd .
28.
Coloma
RS
McElhinny
B
Tungohan
E
, et al. (2012 ) Filipinos in Canada: Disturbing Invisibility . University of Toronto Press .
29.
Conroy
SA
(2003 ) A pathway for interpretive phenomenology . International Qualitative Methods 2 (3 ): 36 –62 .
30.
Constante
A
(2022 ) How ‘hiya,’ ‘kapwa’ and other cultural values play a role in Filipino American mental health . Los Angeles Times , 17 March . Available at : https://www.latimes.com/lifestyle/story/2022-03-17/how-hiya-kapwa-and-other-cultural-values-play-a-role-in-filipino-american-mental-health
31.
Cortes
P
(2015 ) The feminization of international migration and its effects on the children left behind: evidence from the Philippines . World Development 65 : 62 –78 .
32.
Court
D
Abbas
RK
(2022 ) Insider-Outsider Research in Qualitative Inquiry: New Perspectives on Method and Meaning . Routledge .
33.
Crompton
A
(2021 ) The lie of pandemic pivot and essential work . Qualitative Social Work 20 (1–2 ): 193 –199 .
34.
Croteau
J
(2020 ) Diverse communities in Calgary facing discrimination over Cargill’s COVID-19 cases . Global News , 29 April . Available at : https://globalnews.ca/news/6885362/newcomers-immigrants-discrimination-calgary-cargill-covid-19/
35.
David
C
(2014 ) Health Care as a Social Good: Religious Values and American Democracy . Georgetown University Press .
36.
Davis-Garcia
C
(2021 ) What’s the best work perk of all? Contributing to social good . The SHRM Blog , 8 December . Available at : https://blog.shrm.org/blog/what-s-the-best-work-perk-of-all-contributing-to-the-social-good
37.
Day
I
(2016 ) Alien Capital: Asian Racialization and the Logic of Settler Colonial Capitalism . Duke University Press .
38.
De Guia
K
(2005 ) Kapwa: The Self in the Other: Worldviews and Lifestyles of Filipino Culture-Bearers . Anvil Publishing .
39.
Dean
J
(2017 ) Doing Reflexivity: An Introduction . Policy Press .
40.
Deslauriers
F
Gosselin-Boucher
V
Léger
C
, et al. (2023 ) The impact of COVID-19 on the lives of Canadians with and without non-communicable chronic diseases: results from the iCARE Study . BMC Public Health 23 : 2106 .
41.
Diversity Magazine
(2022 ) Coronavirus-the untold story of racism and discrimination. Fall . Available at : https://diversitymag.ca/the-other-side-of-the-pandemic-discrimination/
42.
Dunlap
LA
(1979 ) Social production in Karl Marx . Review of Social Economy 37 (3 ): 313 –328 . December: JSTOR . Available at : https://www.jstor.org/stable/29768982
43.
Emirbayer
M
Mische
A
(1998 ) What is agency? American Journal of Sociology 103 (4 ): 962 –1023 .
44.
Foley
D
Chowdhury
(2007 ) Poverty, social exclusion and the politics of disability: care as a social good and expenditure of social capital in Chuadanga, Bangladesh . Social Policy and Administration 41 (4 ): 372 –385 .
45.
Foster
C
(2014 ) Genuine Multiculturalism: The Tragedy and Comedy of Diversity . McGill-Queens University Press .
46.
Frechette
J
Bitzas
V
Aubry
M
, et al. (2020 ) Capturing lived experience: methodological considerations for interpretive phenomenological inquiry . International Journal of Qualitative Methods 19 : 160940692090725 .
47.
Froese
I
(2020 ) Overrepresented in service jobs, Filipinos more likely to have lost work in pandemic . CBC News , 15 September . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/filipinos-winnipeg-over-represented-service-jobs-lost-hours-1.5723315
48.
Gadi
N
Saleh
S
Johnson
J
, et al. (2022 ) The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lifestyle and behaviours, mental health and education of students studying health-care related courses at a British University . BMC Medical Education 22 : 115 .
49.
Garlington
SB
Collins
ME
Bossaller
MRD
(2019 ) An ethical foundation for social good: virtue theory and solidarity . Research on Social Work Practice 30 (2 ): 196 –204 .
50.
Gilmore
R
(2022 ) Some trucker convoy organizers have history of white nationalism, racism . Global News , 29 January . Available at : https://globalnews.ca/news/8543281/covid-trucker-convoy-organizers-hate/
51.
Goli
M
(2009 ) The Philippine Women of Canada’s Live-in Caregiver Program: Ethical Issues and Perspectives . Thesis, Master of Public Health , Simon Fraser University . Available at : https://summit.sfu.ca/item/9542
52.
Gonzalez
G
(2020 ) Who are the real-life heroes in the time of COVID-19? HCT Philippines. OCHA Services reliefWeb , 19 August . Available at : https://reliefweb.int/report/philippines/who-are-real-life-heroes-time-covid-19
53.
Government of Canada
(2022 ) What does it mean if I’m medically inadmissible for excessive demand reasons? Date modified 26 July . Available at : https://www.cic.gc.ca/english/helpcentre/answer.asp?qnum=1448&top=8
54.
Government of Canada
(2023 ) Canada Emergency Response Benefit (CERB); closed. Date modified 9 March . Available at : https://www.canada.ca/en/services/benefits/ei/cerb-application.html
55.
Graveland
B
(2020 ) Death is so real’: Alberta immigrant group says meat workers afraid after Cargill plant closure . Toronto Star , 25 April . Available at : https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2020/04/25/death-is-so-real-alberta-immigrant-group-says-meat-workers-afraid-after-cargill-plant-closure.html
56.
Guo
S
Wong
L
(eds) (2018 ) Immigration Racial and Ethnic Studies in 150 Years of Canada: Retrospects and Prospects . Leiden : Brill .
57.
Haggard
P
Baruchi
E
(2015 ) The Sense of Agency . Oxford University Press .
58.
Harzig
C
(2003 ) Immigration policies: a gendered historical comparison . Eldis . Available at : https://www.eldis.org/document/A53191
59.
Hayes
S
(2007 ) The concept of labor: Marx and his critics . Science & Society 71 (4 ): 431 –454 .
60.
Hellerstein
JK
Neumark
D
(2020 ) Social Capital, Networks, and Economic Wellbeing . IZA DP No. 13413, IZA- Institute of Labor Economics . Available at : https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/13413/social-capital-networks-and-economic-wellbeing
61.
Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada
(2009 ) National Strategy for critical infrastructure. Cat.No.: PS4-65/2009E-PDF . Public Safety Canada . Available at : https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/srtg-crtcl-nfrstrctr/index-en.aspx
62.
Herod
A
Wright
MW
(eds) (2002 ) Geographies of Power: Placing Scale . Oxford : John Wiley & Sons .
63.
Hill Collins
P
Bilge
S
(2020 ) Intersectionality . 2nd edition . Polity .
64.
Hill Collins
P
Gonzaga da Silva
EC
Ergun
E
, et al. (2021 ) Critical Exchange: intersectionality as critical social theory . Contemporary Political Theory 20 : 690 –725 .
65.
Hoerder
D
Van Nederveen Meerkerk
E
Neunsinger
S
(eds) (2015 ) Towards a Global History of Domestic and Caregiving Workers . Leiden and Boston : Brill .
66.
Hou
F
Schimmele
C
Stick
M
(2023 ) Changing demographics of racialized people in Canada. Economic and social reports, statistics Canada . https://doi.org/10.25318/36280001202300800001-eng
67.
Human Rights Watch
(2020 ) COVID-19 fueling anti-Asian racism and xenophobia: national action plans needed to counter intolerance . 12 May . Available at : https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/12/covid-19-fueling-anti-asian-racism-and-xenophobia-worldwide
68.
Jedwab
J
(ed) (2014 ) The Multiculturalism Question: Debating Identity in 21st Century Canada . Kingston : School of Policy Studies, Queens University .
69.
Johnston
H
(2006 ) Komagata Maru . The Canadian Encyclopedia . Published online 7 February and last edited 12 October 2021 . Available at : https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/komagata-maru
70.
Kelley
N
Trebilcock
M
(2010 ) The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy . 2nd edition . University of Toronto Press .
71.
Kelly
P
Park
S
De Leon
C
, et al. (2009 ) Profile of live-in caregiver immigrants to Canada, 1993–2009. TIEDI analytical report 18. Toronto immigrant employment data initiative . Available at : https://www.yorku.ca/tiedi/doc/AnalyticalReport18.pdf
72.
Kendall
FE
(2013 ) Understanding White Privilege: Creating Pathways to Authentic Relationship across Race . 2nd edition . Routledge .
73.
Kenton
W
(2022 ) Social good: definition, benefits, examples . Investopedia , 26 August . Available at : https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/social_good.asp
74.
Keys
MM
(2006 ) Aquinas, Aristotle, and the Promise of the Common Good . Cambridge University Press .
75.
Kinch
M
(2021 ) Filipinos across Canada respond to pandemic inequalities . Briarpatch Magazine , 5 July . Available at : https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/view/filipinos-across-canada-respond-to-pandemic-inequalities
76.
King
RB
Ganotice
FA
Watkins
DA
(2014 ) A cross-cultural analysis of achievement and social goals among Chinese and Filipino students . Social Psychology of Education 17 : 439 –455 .
77.
Kontos
M
Bonifacio
G
(2015 ) Migrant Domestic Workers and Family Life . Palgrave MacMillan .
78.
Kornik
S
(2019 ) New report identifies 7 extremist groups of threat to Alberta, offers recommendations to combat hate , Global News . 24 April . Available at : https://globalnews.ca/news/5197423/new-report-combating-hate-crime-alberta/
79.
Kost
H
(2022 ) Alberta, Philippines reach agreement to recruit more nurses to the province . CBC News , 6 October . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta-philippines-nurses-recruitment-1.6608688
80.
Lagdameo-Santillan
K
(2024 ) Roots of Filipino Humanism (1) “Kapwa” . Pressenza International Press Agency , 18 August . Available at : https://www.pressenza.com/2018/07/roots-of-filipino-humanism-1kapwa/
81.
Laquian
E
(2023 [2008]) Filipino Canadians . The Canadian Encyclopedia , Updated by Clayton Ma, 5 May . Available at : https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/filipinos
82.
Learning Network
(n.d.) “More exposed and less protected” in Canada: Systemic Racism and COVID-19. Centre for research & education on violence against women & children, Western University . Available at : https://gbvlearningnetwork.ca/our-work/backgrounders/more_exposed_and_less_protected_in_canada_systemic_racism_and_covid19/index.html
83.
Leedham
E
(2022 ) Canada’s Freedom Convoy is a front for a right-wing, anti-worker agenda . Jacobin , 5 February . Available at : https://jacobin.com/2022/02/canada-freedom-convoy-conservative-right-wing-anti-worker-anti-vaccine
84.
Lenard
PT
Straehle
C
(eds) (2012 ) Legislated Inequality: Temporary Labour Migration in Canada . Montreal : McGill-Queens’s University Press .
85.
Lindsay
C
(2001 ) Profiles of ethnic communities in Canada: the Filipino community in Canada . Statistics Canada , Catalogue no. 89-621-XIE-No.5 . Available at : https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007005-eng.pdf
86.
Lu
J
(2021 ) Why pandemic give birth to hate: from bubonic plague to COVID-19 . NPR News , 26 March . Available at : https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/03/26/980480882/why-pandemics-give-birth-to-hate-from-black-death-to-covid-19
87.
Luk
V
(2020 ) How Filipino-Canadian care aides are disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic . CBC News , 31 May . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-19-filipino-care-aides-affected-1.5589603
88.
Magalit Rodriguez
R
(2010 ) Migrants for Export: How the Philippine State Brokers Labor to the World . University of Minnesota Press .
89.
Magdoff
H
(2006 ) The meaning of work: a Marxist perspective . Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine 58 (5 ): 52 . Available at : https://monthlyreview.org/2006/10/01/the-meaning-of-work-a-marxist-perspective/
90.
Mahler
SJ
Pessar
PR
(2010 ) Gendered geographies of power: analyzing gender across transnational spaces . Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power 7 (4 ): 441 –459 .
91.
Manalo
ARM
(2022 ) Bagong bayani: tracing the reverence and portrayal of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) in Philippine political discourse . Emory Journal of Asian Studies . Available at : https://ejasonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/12-manalo.pdf
92.
Matas
D
(1985 ) Racism in Canadian immigration policy . Refuge: Canada’s Journal on Refugees 5 (2 ): 8 –9 .
93.
Modood
T
Thompson
S
(2021 ) Othering, alienation and establishment . Political Studies 70 (3 ): 780 –796 .
94.
Mooten
N
(2021 ) Racism, discrimination and migrant workers in Canada: evidence from the literature . Policy Research, Research and Evaluation Branch; Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) . Available at : https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/reports-statistics/research/racism-discrimination-migrant-workers-canada-evidence-literature.html
95.
Mor Barak
ME
(2018 ) The practice and science of social good: emerging paths to positive social impact . Research on Social Work Practice 30 : 139 –150 .
96.
Moro
FR
Russo
G
(2024 ) Family language policy in multilingual Filipino families in Italy . Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 1 –15 . doi: 10.1080/01434632.2024.2321389 .
97.
Morrison
T
(2017 ) The Origin of Others . Harvard University Press .
98.
Murtola
A
Vallelly
N
(2022 ) Who cares for well-being? Corporate wellness, social reproduction and the essential worker . Organization 30 (3 ): 510 –527 .
99.
Naples
NA
(2003 ) Feminism and Method: Ethnography, Discourse Analysis, and Activist Research . Routledge .
100.
Nasol
K
Francisco-Menchavez
V
(2021 ) Filipino home care workers: invisible frontline workers in the COVID-19 crisis in the United States . American Behavioral Scientist 65 (10 ): 1365 –1383 .
101.
National Conference of State Legislatures
(2021 ) COVID-19: essential workers in the states . Report, January 11 . Available at : https://www.ncsl.org/labor-and-employment/covid-19-essential-workers-in-the-states
102.
Natividad
E
Redula
T
(2020 ) 1st COVID-19 vaccine recipients say it’s history made for Filipino-Canadians . City News , 18 December . Available at : https://toronto.citynews.ca/2020/12/18/filipino-canadians-covid-19-vaccine-history/
103.
Neubauer
BE
Witkop
CT
Varpio
L
(2019 ) How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others . Perspectives on Medical Education 8 : 90 –97 .
104.
New York University
(2021 ) “On the frontlines: Filipino/Filipinx healthcare workers”—how the pandemic has affected frontline workers in the U.S. and the Philippines , May 4. 22 April . Available at : https://www.nyu.edu/about/news-publications/news/2021/april/-on-the-frontlines--filipino-filipinx-healthcare-workers---how-t.html
105.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
(2019 ) Recruiting Immigrant Workers: Canada 2019 . OECD Publishing . https://doi.org/10.1787/4abab00d-en
106.
Patterson
K
(2022 ) Largest proportion of recent immigrants in Alberta are from Philippines. India: StatCan . City News , 26 October . Available at : https://edmonton.citynews.ca/2022/10/26/recent-immigrants-alberta-philippines-india/
107.
Petersmann
E
(2014 ) Why justice and human rights require cosmopolitan international economic law . In:
Lenzerini
F
Vrdoljak
AF
(eds) International Law for Common Goods: Normative Perspectives on Human Rights, Culture and Nature . Hart Publishing , 117 –138 .
108.
Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) and University of the Philippines Population Institute (UPPI)
(2019 ) 2018 National migration survey . PSA and UPPI .
109.
Pietkiewicz
I
Smith
JA
(2012 ) A practical guide to using interpretive phenomenological analysis in qualitative research psychology . Psychological Journal 18 (2 ): 361 –369 .
110.
Piper
N
(2008 ) Feminisation of migration and the social dimensions of development: the Asian case . Third World Quarterly 29 (7 ): 1287 –1303 . JSTOR . https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455110
111.
Pongou
R
Ahinkorah
BO
Maltais
S
, et al. (2022 ) Psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada . PLoS One 17 (11 ): e0277238 .
112.
Public Safety Canada
(2022 ) Parliamentary committee notes: evolution of the freedom 2022 convoy . Date modified 20 December . Available at : https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/trnsprnc/brfng-mtrls/prlmntry-bndrs/20221013/04-en.aspx
113.
Ramos-Reid
R
(2019 ) Filipinos in Canadian workforce fare better than the rest . Canadian Filipino Net , 16 January . Available at : https://www.canadianfilipino.net/news/filipinos-in-the-canadian-workforce-fare-better-than-the-rest
114.
Rastogi
D
(2018 ) Career Identity Development of ‘Dependent’ Immigrant Women: A Qualitative Exploration . University of Ottawa .
115.
Roces
M
(2021 ) Filipino migrants are agents of change . The Interpreter , 2 November. Lowy Institute . Available at : https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/filipino-migrants-are-agents-change
116.
Rodriguez
J
(2020 ) Filipino community proud of it front-line workers, but urge stronger protections . CTV News , 23 December . Available at : https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/filipino-community-proud-of-its-front-line-workers-but-urge-stronger-protections-1.5243559
117.
Safa
HI
(2018 ) The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean . Routledge .
118.
Satake
M
(2014 ) Philippine workers an essential asset the world over . Nikkei Asia , 11 June . Available at : https://asia.nikkei.com/NAR/Articles/Philippine-workers-an-essential-asset-the-world-over
119.
Schimmele
C
Hou
F
Stick
M
(2023 ) Poverty among racialized groups across generation . Economic and Social Reports 3 (8 ), Statistics Canada, catalogue no. 36-28-0001. 23 August. Available at: https://doi.org/10.25318/3628000120300800002-eng
120.
Scrimshaw
M
(2015 ) Do nannies from the Philippines keep Alberta oil flowing? iPolitics , 18 February . Available at : https://www.ipolitics.ca/news/do-nannies-from-the-philippines-keep-alberta-oil-flowing
121.
Silver
CA
Tatler
BW
Chakravarthi
R
, et al. (2021 ) Social agency as a continuum . Theoretical Review 28 : 434 –453 .
122.
Smith
A
(2022 ) Deena Hinshaw replaced as Alberta’s chief medical officer after Premier criticized province’s COVID response . The Globe and Mail , 14 November . Available at : https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/alberta/article-deena-hinshaw-replaced-as-albertas-chief-medical-officer-after-premier/
123.
Smith
JA
Flowers
P
Larkin
M
(2009 ) Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research . Sage .
124.
Statistics Canada
(2020 ) Experiences of discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic . The Daily , 17 September . Available at : https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/daily-quotidien/200917/dq200917a-eng.pdf?st=1fwxxkM3
125.
Statistics Canada
(2021 a) COVID-19 in Canada: a one-year update on social and economic impacts . 11 March, Catalogue no. 11-631-x2021001 . Available at : https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/11-631-x/11-631-x2021001-eng.pdf?st=jgAsm5uG
126.
Statistics Canada
(2021 b) A labour market snapshot of South Asian, Chinese and Filipino Canadians during the pandemic . The Daily , 21 May . Available at : https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/210521/dq210521b-eng.htm
127.
Statistics Canada
(2022 a) The Canadian census: a rich portrait of the country’s religious and ethnocultural diversity . The Daily , 26 October . Available at : https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm
128.
Statistics Canada
(2022 b) Canada at a glance, 2022: racialized groups . Date modified 23 November . Available at : https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/12-581-x/2022001/sec3-eng.htm
129.
Statistics Canada
(2023 a) (table) census profile, 2021 census of population. Statistics Canada catalogue no. 98-316-X2021001 . Ottawa. Released 15 November 2023 . Available at : https://www12.statcan.gc/census-recensement/20121/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E
130.
Statistics Canada
(2023 b) Research to insights: a look at Canada’s economy and society three years after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic . Released 9 March 2023. Catalogue no. 11-631-X . Available at : https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-631-x/11-631-x2023004-eng.htm
131.
Stevano
S
Ali
R
Jamieson
M
(2020 ) Essential for what? A global social reproduction view and the re-organization of work during the COVID-19 pandemic . Canadian Journal of Development Studies 42 (1-2 ): 178 –199 .
132.
Tan
E
(2022 ) From good job to no job, life in Canada taught me to go with the flow . CBC News , 5 July . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/first-person-edmonton-proud-to-be-canadian-erlinda-tan-1.6491553
133.
Thobani
S
(2007 ) Exalted Subjects: Studies in the Making of Race and Nation in Canada . University of Toronto Press .
134.
Thompson
E
Edjoc
R
Atchessi
N
, et al. (2021 ) COVID-19: a case for the collection of race data in Canada and abroad . Canadian Communicable Disease Report (July/August) 47 (7/8 ): 300 –304 .
135.
Toy
A
(2022 ) Alberta’s Jason Kenney raises concerns, warns ‘populism with a Snarl’ not conservatism . Global News , 7 October . Available at : https://globalnews.ca/news/9185762/jason-kenney-conservatism-populism-concerns/
136.
Tungohan
E
(2016 ) From encountering confederate flags to finding refuge in spaces of solidarity: Filipino temporary foreign workers’ experiences of the public in Alberta . Space and Polity 21 (1 ): 11 –26 .
137.
Wing Sue
D
Spanierman
L
(2020 ) Microaggressions in Everyday Life . John Wiley & Sons .
138.
Yabut Nadal
KL
Tintiangco-Cubales
A
David
EJR
(eds) (2022 ) The Sage Encyclopedia of Filipina/x/o American Studies. US . Sage .
139.
Zimonjic
P
(2022 ) Canada’s working age-population is older than ever, StatsCan says . CBC News , 27 April . Available at : https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-working-age-poupulation-census