The Goldilocks Paradigm of Starvation and Refeeding

Golden MH. The development of concepts of malnutrition. J Nutr. 2002;132:2117S– 2122S.

Cahill GF Jr. Starvation in man. N Engl J Med. 1970;282:668– 675.

Rothman DL, Magnusson I, Katz LD, Shulman RG, Shulman GI. Quantitation of hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in fasting humans with 13C NMR. Science. 1991 ;254:573– 576.

Gelfand RA, Hendler R. Effect of nutrient composition on the metabolic response to very low calorie diets: learning more and more about less and less. Diabetes Metab Rev. 1989 ;5:17– 30.

Calloway DH, Spector H. Nitrogen balance as related to caloric and protein intake in active young men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1954 ;2:405– 412.

Blackburn GL, Flatt JP, Clowes GH Jr, O'Donnell TF, Hensle TE. Protein sparing therapy during periods of starvation with sepsis of trauma. Ann Surg. 1973 ;177:588– 594.

Greenberg GR, Jeejeebhoy KN. Intravenous protein-sparing therapy in patients with gastrointestinal disease. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1979;3:427– 432.

Hoffer LJ, Bistrian BR, Young VR, Blackburn GL, Matthews DE. Metabolic effects of very low calorie weight reduction diets. J Clin Invest. 1984;73:750– 758.

Dickerson RN, Rosato EF, Mullen JL. Net protein anabolism with hypocaloric parenteral nutrition in obese stressed patients. Am J Clin Nutr. 1986;44:747– 755.

Choban PS, Burge JC, Scales D, Flancbaum L. Hypoenergetic nutrition support in hospitalized obese patients: a simplified method for clinical application. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997 ;66:546– 550.

Klein S, Holland OB, Wolfe RR. Importance of blood glucose concentration in regulating lipolysis during fasting in humans. Am J Physiol. 1990;258(1 pt 1):E32– E39.

Jensen MD, Miles JM, Gerich JE, Cryer PE, Haymond MW. Preservation of insulin effects on glucose production and proteolysis during fasting. Am J Physiol. 1988 ;254(6 pt 1):E700– E707.

Gardner DF, Kaplan MM, Stanley CA, Utiger RD. Effect of tri-iodothyronine replacement on the metabolic and pituitary responses to starvation. N Engl J Med. 1979 ;300:579– 584.

Bistrian BR, Blackburn GL, Hallowell E, Heddle R. Protein status of general surgical patients. JAMA. 1974 ;230:858– 860.

Schofield C, Ashworth A. Why have mortality rates for severe malnutrition remained so high? Bull World Health Organ. 1996;74:223– 229.

Foxx-Orenstein A, Kirby DF. Understanding malnutrition and refeeding syndrome. In: Kirby DF, Dudrick SJ, eds. Practical Handbook of Nutrition in Clinical Practice. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1994: 19–30.

Blackburn GL, Bistrian BR, Maini BS, Schlamm HT, Smith MF. Nutritional and metabolic assessment of the hospitalized patient. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1977 ;1:11– 22.

Weinsier RL, Krumdieck CL. Death resulting from overzealous total parenteral nutrition: the refeeding syndrome revisited. Am J Clin Nutr. 1981;34:393– 399.

Kalm LM, Semba RD. They starved so that others be better fed: remembering Ancel Keys and the Minnesota experiment. J Nutr. 2005;135:1347– 1352.

Keys A, Austin JB, Henshel A, Mickelson O, Taylor HL. The Biology of Human Starvation, Volumes I-II. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press; 1950.

Solomon SM, Kirby DF. The refeeding syndrome: a review. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1990 ;14:90– 97.

Hayek ME, Eisenberg PG. Severe hypophosphatemia following the institution of enteral feedings. Arch Surg. 1989 ;124:1325– 1328.

Marinella MA. Refeeding syndrome and hypophosphatemia. J Intensive Care Med. 2005;20:155– 159.

Mehler PS. Eating disorders, 1: anorexia nervosa. Hosp Pract (Off Ed). 1996;31:109– 113, 117.

Cumming AD, Farquhar JR, Bouchier IA. Refeeding hypophosphataemia in anorexia nervosa and alcoholism. BMJ (Clin Res Ed). 1987 ;295:490– 491.

Travis SF, Sugerman HJ, Ruberg RL, et al. Alterations of red-cell glycolytic intermediates and oxygen transport as a consequence of hypophosphatemia in patients receiving intravenous hyperalimentation. N Engl J Med. 1971 ;285:763– 768.

Kraft MD, Btaiche IF, Sacks GS. Review of the refeeding syndrome. Nutr Clin Pract. 2005 ;20:625– 633.

DeFronzo RA, Cooke CR, Andres R, Faloona GR, Davis PJ. The effect of insulin on renal handling of sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphate in man. J Clin Invest. 1975 ;55:845– 855.

Van Way CW, Longoria M, Sacks GS. Do surgeons need to worry about vitamin deficiencies? Nutr Clin Pract. 2001 ;16(suppl):S5– S7.

Brooks MJ, Melnik G. The refeeding syndrome: an approach to understanding its complications and preventing its occurrence. Pharmacotherapy. 1995 ;15:713– 726.

Heymsfield SB, Bethel RA, Ansley JD, Gibbs DM, Felner JM, Nutter DO. Cardiac abnormalities in cachectic patients before and during nutritional repletion. Am Heart J. 1978 ;95:584– 594.

Ruberg RL, Allen TR, Goodman MJ, Long JM, Dudrick SJ. Hypophosphatemia with hypophosphaturia in hyperalimentation. Surg Forum. 1971;22:87– 88.

Hill GL, Guinn EJ, Dudrick SJ. Phosphorus distribution in hyperalimentation induced hypophosphatemia. J Surg Res. 1976;20:527– 531.

Apovian CM, McMahon MM, Bistrian BR. Guidelines for refeeding the marasmic patient. Crit Care Med. 1990 ;18:1030– 1033.

Nutrition Advisory Group. Multivitamin preparations for parenteral use: a statement by the Nutrition Advisory Group: American Medical Association Department of Foods and Nutrition, 1975. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1979;3:258– 262.

Dudrick SJ, Wilmore DW, Vars HM, Rhoads JE. Long-term total parenteral nutrition with growth, development, and positive nitrogen balance. Surgery. 1968;64:134– 142.

Wilmore DW, Dudrick SJ. Growth and development of an infant receiving all nutrients exclusively by vein. JAMA. 1968 ;203:860– 864.