Prompted Self-Explanations Improve Learning in Statistics but Not Retention

Abstract

Background

College students often do not retain what they learn in Statistics in order to apply it in Experimental Psychology. Self-explanation, that is, elaborating on what one is trying to learn by asking questions, making inferences, etc., improves learning and may improve retention.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to determine whether self-explanation was superior to students’ usual study methods specifically for learning some basic concepts in statistics, and, if so, if it was similarly useful for retention a semester after the initial learning.

Method

We used 199 college students as participants in a randomized, between participant, two-part experiment examining the effects of training by prompting self-explanations as a potential solution to this applied problem.

Results

The self-explanations that we elicited improved initial learning and were superior to students’ usual study methods, but did not benefit retention.

Conclusions

Future research on improving the quality of the self-explanations and training with spaced retrieval practice, in order to benefit retention, is suggested.

Teaching Implication

Self-explanation should be implemented for teaching statistics in order to benefit initial learning. However, teachers should explore other methods to accomplish retention.

Keywords

college teaching teaching statistics learning statistics long-term retention

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aleven

V. A. W. M. M.

Koedinger

K. R.

(2002). An effective metacognitive strategy: Learning by doing and explaining with a computer-based Cognitive Tutor. Cognitive Science, 26(2), 147–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0364-0213(02)00061-7

Atkinson

R. K.

Renkl

Merrill

M. M.

(2003). Transitioning from studying examples to solving problems: Effects of self-explanation prompts and fading worked-out steps. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 774–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.774

Berthold

Renkl

(2009). Instructional aids to support a conceptual understanding of multiple representations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013247

Berthold

Röder

Knörzer

Kessler

Renkl

(2011). The double-edged effects of explanation prompts. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(1), 69–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.025

Bielaczyc

Pirolli

P. L.

Brown

A. L.

(1995). Training in self-explanation and self-regulation strategies: Investigating the effects of knowledge acquisition activities on problem solving. Cognition & Instruction, 13(2), 221–252. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci1302_3

Cepeda

N. J.

Coburn

Rohrer

Wixted

J. T.

Mozer

M. C.

Pashler

(2009). Optimizing distributed practice: Theoretical analysis and practical implications. Experimental Psychology, 56(4), 236–246. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.236

Chi

M. T.

Bassok

Lewis

M. W.

Reimann

Glaser

(1989). Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science, 13(2), 145–182. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1302_1

Chi

M. T.

VanLehn

K. A.

(1991). The content of physics self-explanations. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 1(1), 69–105. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls0101_4

Chi

M. T. H.

de Leeuw

Chiu

M.-H.

LaVancher

(1994). Eliciting self-explanations improves understanding. Cognitive Science, 18(3), 439–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/0364-0213(94)90016-7

10.

Chi

T.-Y.

(2018). Computer skill acquisition and retention: The effects of computer-aided self-explanation. ProQuest Information & Learning (2017-23162-237).

11.

Cho

Y. H.

Jonassen

D. H.

(2012). Learning by self-explaining causal diagrams in high-school biology. Asia Pacific Education Review, 13(1), 171–184. http://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-011-9187-4

12.

Crowley

Siegler

R. S.

(1999). Explanation and generalization in young children’s strategy learning. Child Development, 70(2), 304–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00023

13.

de Bruin

A. B. H.

Rikers

R. M. J. P.

Schmidt

H. G.

(2007). The effect of self-explanation and prediction on the development of principled understanding of chess in novices. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32(2), 188–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.01.001

14.

De Koning

B. B.

Tabbers

H. K.

Rikers

R. M. J. P.

Paas

(2011). Improved effectiveness of cueing by self-explanations when learning from a complex animation. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(2), 183–194. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1661

15.

de Koning

B. B.

Tabbers

H. K.

Rikers

R. M. J. P.

Paas

(2010). Learning by generating vs. receiving instructional explanations: Two approaches to enhance attention cueing in animations. Computers & Education, 55(2), 681–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.02.027

16.

Ebersbach

Barzagar Nazari

(2020). Implementing distributed practice in statistics courses: Benefits for retention and transfer. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(4), 532–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.08.014

17.

Howie

D. E.

Vicente

K. J.

(1998). Making the most of ecological interface design: The role of self-explanation. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 49(5), 651–674. https://doi.org/10.1006/ijhc.1998.0207

18.

Hsu

C.-Y.

Tsai

C.-C.

Wang

H.-Y.

(2016). Exploring the effects of integrating self-explanation into a multi-user game on the acquisition of scientific concepts. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(4), 844–858. http://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2014.926276

19.

Huk

Ludwigs

(2009). Combining cognitive and affective support in order to promote learning. Learning and Instruction, 19(6), 495–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.09.001

20.

Koedinger

K. R.

Corbett

A. T.

Perfetti

(2012). The knowledge-learning-instruction framework: Bridging the science-practice chasm to enhance robust student learning. Cognitive Science, 36(5), 757–798. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2012.01245.x

21.

Kuhn

Katz

(2009). Are self-explanations always beneficial? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103(3), 386–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2009.03.003

22.

Larsen

D. P.

Butler

A. C.

Roediger

H. L. I.

(2013). Comparative effects of test-enhanced learning and self-explanation on long-term retention. Medical Education, 47(7), 674–682. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.12141

23.

Leppink

Broers

N. J.

Imbos

van der Vleuten

C. P. M.

Berger

M. P. F.

(2012). Self-explanation in the domain of statistics: An expertise reversal effect. Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education and Educational Planning, 63(6), 771–785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-011-9476-1

24.

Margulieux

L. E.

Catrambone

(2019). Finding the best types of guidance for constructing self-explanations of subgoals in programming. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 28(1), 108–151. http://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2018.1491852

25.

Mathan

(2004). Recasting the feedback debate: Benefits of tutoring error detection and correction skills [ProQuest Information & Learning]. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 64(12–B), 6350.

26.

McEldoon

K. L.

Durkin

K. L.

Rittle-Johnson

(2013). Is self-explanation worth the time? A comparison to additional practice. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 615–632. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.2012.02083.x

27.

Molesworth

B. R. C.

Bennett

Kehoe

E. J.

(2011). Promoting learning, memory, and transfer in a time-constrained, high hazard environment. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43(3), 932–938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2010.11.016

28.

Pillow

B. H.

Mash

Aloian

Hill

(2002). Facilitating children’s understanding of misinterpretation: Explanatory efforts and improvements in perspective taking. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163(2), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221320209598673

29.

Rittle-Johnson

(2006). Promoting transfer: Effects of self-explanation and direct instruction. Child Development, 77(1), 1–15. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00852.x

30.

Rittle-Johnson

Fyfe

E. R.

Loehr

A. M.

Miller

M. R.

(2015). Beyond numeracy in preschool: Adding patterns to the equation. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 31, 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.01.005

31.

Rittle-Johnson

Loehr

A. M.

(2017). Eliciting explanations: Constraints on when self-explanation aids learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(5), 1501–1510. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-016-1079-5

32.

Ryan

R. S.

Koppenhofer

J. A.

(2021, September 11). Statistics (SE) Fall 2016. Open Science Framework. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/H8SUT

33.

Snow

E. L.

Likens

A. D.

Allen

L. K.

McNamara

D. S.

(2016). Taking control: Stealth assessment of deterministic behaviors within a game-based system. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26(4), 1011–1032. http://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0085-5

34.

Talley

C. P.

Scherer

(2013). The enhanced flipped classroom: Increasing academic performance with student-recorded lectures and practice testing in a “flipped” STEM course. Journal of Negro Education, 82(3), 339–347. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.82.3.0339

35.

Tenenbaum

H. R.

Alfieri

Brooks

P. J.

Dunne

(2008). The effects of explanatory conversations on children’s emotion understanding. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 26(2), 249–263. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151007X231057

36.

Wittwer

Renkl

(2010). How effective are instructional explanations in example-based learning? A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychology Review, 22(4), 393–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9136-5

37.

Wylie

Koedinger

Mitamura

(2010). Analogies, explanations, and practice: Examining how task types affect second language grammar learning. In Aleven

Kay

Mostow

(eds.), Intelligent tutoring systems (pp. 214–223). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13388-6_26

38.

Wylie

Sheng

Mitamura

Koedinger

K. R.

(2011). Effects of adaptive prompted self-explanation on robust learning of second language grammar. In Biswas

Bull

Kay

Mitrovic

(eds.), Artificial intelligence in education (pp. 588–590). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21869-9_110