This study examines the origins of the Chicago Central Area Committee, a downtown business group that formed in 1956 to provide a unified voice for business leaders in redevelopment planning for Chicago’s downtown area. Similar groups were established in cities around the country during the post—World War II era, providing the cohesive business leadership necessary for the formation of urban growth coalitions. While some studies have emphasized the role of economic conditions in the creation of downtown business groups, this study argues that political factors played a key role in the formation of the Central Area Committee. In particular, conflicts between downtown and neighborhood actors over redevelopment planning for the central area encouraged business elites to overcome their differences and mobilize around a common agenda. Business leaders united in part to seize control of a redevelopment program in which neighborhood actors played a significant role.
Thomas Buck, "22 Year Plan: A New Face for Chicago,"Chicago Tribune , August 23, 1958, 1.
2.
The plan identified the boundaries of the central area as extending north to North Avenue, east to Lake Michigan, south to 25th Street, and west to Ashland Avenue.
3.
James L. Greer, "The Politics of Decline and Growth: Planning, Economic Transformation, and the Structuring of Urban Futures in American Cities" (PhD diss., University of Chicago, IL, 1983), 135.
4.
The population of Chicago’s central area was 139,453 in 1990. It had grown to 158,618 by 2000. U.S. Census Bureau, 1990 and 2000 U.S. Census, Summary tape file 1.
5.
See Clarence N. Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946-1988 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989); and John H. Mollenkopf, The Contested City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983). In his version of urban regime theory, Clarence Stone defines a regime as a sustained, multi-issue alliance between local government officials and nongovernmental actors (usually business) that exercises wide-ranging power over policy making and execution. Regimes form due to the legal and institutional weakness of local government and the resulting need for partnerships to create an effective capacity to govern.
6.
Richard Child Hill, "Crisis in the Motor City: The Politics of Economic Development in Detroit," in Restructuring the City: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment, ed. Susan S. Fainstein, Norman I. Fainstein, Richard Child Hill, Dennis R. Judd, and Michael P. Smith (New York, NY: Longman, 1986), 80-125; Joel Rast, Remaking Chicago: The Political Origins of Urban Industrial Change (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1999; Roy Lubove, Twentieth-Century Pittsburgh: Government, Business, and Environmental Change (New York, NY: John Wiley, 1969); Mark V. Levine, "Downtown Redevelopment as an Urban Growth Strategy: A Critical Appraisal of the Baltimore Renaissance," Journal of Urban Affairs 9 (1987): 103-23; and Thomas H. O’Connor, Building a New Boston: Politics and Urban Renewal, 1950-1970 (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1993).
7.
Stone, Regime Politics; Gregory D. Squires, ed., Unequal Partnerships: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment in Postwar America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989); Levine, "Downtown Redevelopment"; Barbara Ferman, Challenging the Growth Machine: Neighborhood Politics in Chicago and Pittsburgh (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996); Richard E. DeLeon, Left Coast City: Progressive Politics in San Francisco, 1975-1991 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992); and Stephen L. Elkin, "State and Market in City Politics: Or the ‘Real’ Dallas," in The Politics of Urban Development, ed. Clarence N. Stone and Heywood T. Sanders (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987), 25-51.
8.
See, for example, Greer, "The Politics of Decline and Growth"; Richard White, "It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); and O’Connor, Building a New Boston.
9.
See Dennis Keating, Norman Krumholz, and John Metzger, "Cleveland: Post-Populist Public-Private Partnerships," in Squires, Unequal Partnerships, 121-41; Nancy Kleniewski, "Neighborhood Decline and Downtown Renewal: The Politics of Redevelopment in Philadelphia, 1952-1962" (PhD diss., Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, 1982); Robert W. Wells, This Is Milwaukee (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970).
10.
See, for example, Jon C. Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940-1985 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 46; Robert H. Salisbury, "Urban Politics: The New Convergence of Power," Journal of Politics 26 (1964): 775-97; and Mollenkopf, Contested City, 141. Teaford maintains that downtown business leaders organized "to ensure something was done to halt the detrimental effects of blight and decentralization, for in their minds drastic action was necessary." Salisbury (p. 785) attributes postwar business mobilization to "the perception of threat to tangible ‘downtown’ economic values." Mollenkopf argues in his case studies of postwar Boston and San Francisco that the failure of public officials to respond to increasing blight led business leaders in each city to forge a consensus around an action plan for redevelopment.
11.
For example, the Central Atlanta Improvement Association and Pittsburgh’s Allegheny Conference on Community Development formed in 1941 and 1944, respectively, while the Chicago Central Area Committee formed in 1956, and the Boston Coordinating Committee was created in 1959.
12.
Arnold R.Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 ( Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 17.
13.
Chicago Plan Commission, Master Plan of Residential Land Use of Chicago (Chicago, IL: Chicago Plan Commission, 1943), 69.
14.
Teaford, Rough Road, 19.
15.
Roger Biles, Big City Boss in Depression and War: Mayor Edward J. Kelly of Chicago ( DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1984).
16.
By "downtown interests," I refer specifically to downtown corporate leaders, downtown retailers, downtown property holders, developers and realtors with a strong downtown presence, and civic groups and civic leaders with a downtown focus.
17.
Metropolitan Housing Council, draft report, "Reclaiming the Blighted Areas of Chicago: The Program of the Metropolitan Housing Council," 1946, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Box 3, Folder 37, University of Illinois at Chicago Library.
18.
"Rebuilding of Slums Termed Important for Loop Business,"Chicago Tribune, January 31, 1947, 27.
19.
Civic Federation, 57th Annual Report, 1950; "Clark Opposes Tax Exemption in Housing Plan," Chicago Tribune, April 20, 1945, 14; and "Slum Program’s Danger Is Cited by Civic Group," Chicago Tribune, May 11, 1945, 26.
20.
See Chicago Association of Commerce, Annual Reports, 1945 and 1947.
21.
The organization’s original name was the Metropolitan Housing Council. The name was changed to the Metropolitan Housing and Planning Council in 1948.
22.
Martin Meyerson and Edward C.Banfield, Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest: The Case of Public Housing in Chicago (New York, NY: Free Press of Glencoe, 1955).
23.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto.
24.
Ibid. Chapter 4 of Making the Second Ghetto describes some of the same developments examined in this article. However, Hirsch’s interpretation of these events differs from mine in two key respects. First, Hirsch downplays fragmentation within the downtown business community during the early postwar years, suggesting that the Metropolitan Housing and Planning Council (MHPC) and its partners represented "large Loop interests" (p. 101). Second, Hirsch does not distinguish between redevelopment approaches pursued by neighborhood planning organizations and those initiated by downtown interests. I argue that the orientation of neighborhood planning groups differed from and at times conflicted with redevelopment approaches pursued by downtown actors.
25.
Henry A. Neil, "The Chicago Land Clearance Commission" (MA thesis, University of Chicago, IL, 1952).
Holman Pettibone, memorandum re: conversation with Mayor Kennelly, May 6, 1947, Holman Pettibone Papers, Box 3, Folder "May 1947," Chicago Historical Society; and Chicago Committee on Housing Action, Second Report, May 8, 1947, Pettibone Papers, Box 3, Folder "May 1947."
28.
The Chicago Plan Commission was an advisory body dependent upon city council for its budget and for approval of its plans. Business leaders complained that the commission’s subservient relationship to city council made it a "creature of the aldermen," compromising the professionalism of the agency. See Ferd Kramer, draft letter to Alderman John Duffy re: Plan Commission appropriation, December 9, 1948, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Box 22, Folder 3; and Metropolitan Housing Council, Minutes of a Special Meeting of the Executive Committee, July 13, 1944, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Box 3, Folder 34. With a limited budget, the commission was forced to spend much of its time responding to service requests from individual aldermen, limiting its ability to carry out constructive planning. See William M. Spencer, letter to Mayor Martin Kennelly re: Plan Commission budget, November 27, 1953, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Box 57, Folder 1168. For additional sources on the weakness of the Chicago Plan Commission, see Edward C. Banfield, Political Influence: A New Theory of Urban Politics (New York, NY: Free Press, 1951), 301; and Joel Rast, "Regime Building, Institution Building: Urban Renewal Policy in Chicago, 1946-1962," Journal of Urban Affairs 31 (2009): 173-94.
29.
Chicago Committee for Housing Action, "A Housing and Redevelopment Program for Chicago,"1947, 1.
30.
Holman Pettibone , "Outline of a Long Range Program for the Redevelopment of Blighted Areas in the City of Chicago," July 22, 1947, Pettibone Papers, Box 3, Folder "July 1947."
31.
Miles Colean , A Proposal to Construct Two Redevelopment Projects in Chicago, 1947, Pettibone Papers, Box 3, Folder "July 1947."
32.
Ibid.
33.
Metropolitan Housing Council, Medical Center Area Redevelopment Plan, 1945, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Accession no. 75-104, Box 14, Folder 7.
34.
Metropolitan Housing Council, draft press release re: study by Redevelopment Committee, 1947, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Accession no. 75-104, Box 20, Folder 12.
35.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 106.
36.
Colean, "A Proposal," 8.
37.
Ibid., 19.
38.
Illinois Institute of Technology, Michael Reese Hospital, South Side Planning Board, Metropolitan Housing Council, Pace Associates, and Chicago Housing Authority, An Opportunity for Private and Public Investment in Rebuilding Chicago (Chicago, IL, 1947).
39.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto.
40.
Illinois Institute of Technology et al., An Opportunity.
41.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto.
42.
Neil, "Chicago Land Clearance Commission."
43.
Ibid.
44.
South Side Planning Board, Annual Report, 1952. Significantly, the membership of the South Side Planning Board did not include area residents or community organizations. Partly as a result, the organization’s early urban renewal plans called for extensive displacement of community residents, and relations with local residents and resident groups were poor. See Raymond J. Spaeth and Reginald Issacs, memorandum on program of the South Side Planning Board, November 10, 1948, American Society of Planning Officials Records (hereafter, ASPO Records), Box 3, Folder 22, University of Illinois at Chicago Library.
45.
Colean, "A Proposal," 7. It was Pettibone and Mumford who directed Colean to expand his analysis to include an area on the Near South Side. See Milton Mumford, letter to Miles L. Colean re: work assignments, May 22, 1947, Pettibone Papers, Box 3, Folder "May 1947." The area selected for study was a small, twenty-five-acre parcel located three miles south of the Loop and immediately east of the IIT campus. The selection of a site this far removed from downtown violated Pettibone’s preference that redevelopment efforts concentrate first on areas adjoining the central business district. However, to assuage concerns within the black community that redevelopment planning ignored the housing needs of the city’s African American population, it was eventually agreed that a Near South Side project be planned "either first or contemporaneously with another project for white persons." See Holman Pettibone, memorandum re: conversation with Mayor Kennelly, May 6, 1947, Pettibone Papers, Box 3, Folder "May 1947."
46.
Colean, "A Proposal," 29.
47.
Illinois Institute of Technology et al., An Opportunity.
48.
"Homes Project Held a Leader for Many More,"Chicago Tribune, July 23, 1948, 12.
49.
Department of City Planning, "Locational Patterns of Major Manufacturing Industries in the City of Chicago" (Chicago, IL: Department of City Planning, 1960); Real Estate Research Corporation, "Industrial Functions in the Chicago Central Communities" (Chicago, IL: Real Estate Research Corporation, 1970).
50.
South Side PlanningBoard, An Opportunity to Rebuild Chicago through Industrial Development on the Central South Side (Chicago, IL: South Side Planning Board, 1953 ).
51.
Raymond J. Spaeth and Reginald R. Isaacs, undated draft memorandum re: South Side Planning Board industrial study, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Accession no.75-104, Box 26, Folder 8.
52.
South Side Planning Board, An Opportunity, 1.
53.
Greer, "Politics of Decline and Growth"; and Real Estate Research Corporation, "Industrial Functions."
54.
Greer, "Politics of Decline and Growth"; and Rast, Remaking Chicago.
55.
South Side Planning Board, Statement of Position on the Central Area Plan, October 15, 1958, ASPO Records, Box 3, Folder 27.
56.
John Black, memorandum to Morris Hirsch re: technical planning study, 1955, ASPO Records, Box 3, Folder 28.
57.
South Side Planning Board, Minutes of the Executive Committee, March 7, 1956, ASPO Records, Box 3, Folder 27; and Paul Gapp, "Offers New S. Side Rebuilding Plan," Chicago Daily News, November 26, 1957.
58.
Philip M. Klutznick, letter to Holman Pettibone and Milton Mumford re: meeting with Land Clearance Commission and Chicago Plan Commission, July 6, 1949, Pettibone Papers, Box 5, Folder "June-August 1949."
59.
Holman Pettibone, memorandum to file re: meeting with officers of Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Co., November 29, 1949, Pettibone Papers, Box 5, Folder "October 27-December 1949."
60.
"West Side Unit Seeks to Build Planning Group,"Chicago Tribune, October 17, 1948, W7.
61.
Like the Near South Side, planners viewed the mixing of industrial, commercial, and residential land uses and absence of space for industrial expansion as the key problems for West Side industry. See Near West Side Planning Board, Press Release, April 2, 1951, Pettibone Papers, Box 6, Folder "January-June 1951."
62.
Near West Side Planning Board, Proceedings of the Public Meeting, June 15, 1949, ASPO Records, Box 1, Folder 3.
63.
Ibid., 4.
64.
Carl L.Gardner, letter to Alderman William T. Murphy re: Plan Commission recommendation to Mayor Kennelly, May 25, 1950, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Accession no. 75-104, Box 27, Folder 5.
65.
Roy Christianson , letter to Frank C. Rathje re: planning inspection program, January 19, 1950, Pettibone Papers, Box 5, Folder "January-February 1950."
66.
Metropolitan Housing and Planning Council, press release re: Chicago Plan Commission proposal, January 25, 1950, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Box 8, Folder 8.
67.
Metropolitan Housing and Planning Council, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Governors, February 8, 1950, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Box 3, Folder 40.
68.
Ibid.
69.
L.D. McKendry, memorandum re: meeting with representatives of the Near West Side Planning Board, December 5, 1950, Pettibone Papers, Box 6, Folder "December 1950."
70.
Janet Peck, "Citizens Seek to Redevelop N.W. Side Area," Chicago Tribune, August 25, 1945, NW1.
71.
72.
Peck, "Citizens Seek to Redevelop."
73.
Philip M. Klutznick , Memorandum of Discussions Relative to Redevelopment Project on the Near Northwest Side of Chicago, July 14, 1950, Pettibone Papers, Box 6, Folder "June-October 15, 1950."
74.
Ibid. See also Philip M. Klutznick, letter to Oran Mensik re: Northwest Side redevelopment project, February 12, 1953, Pettibone Papers, Box 8, Folder "January-February 1953."
75.
"Land Clearance Unit to Survey Near N.W. Area," Chicago Tribune, October 22, 1950, NW4.
76.
L.D. McKendry , memorandum re: meeting with Judge La Buy, 1950, Pettibone Papers, Box 6, Folder "December 1950."
77.
Al Chase, "Savings-Loan Funds to Back New Housing," Chicago Tribune, August 8, 1953, 6.
78.
Klutznick, letter to Oran Mensik.
79.
"2 Civic Groups Plan Fight on Slums, Blight,"Chicago Tribune, February 7, 1954, NW1.
80.
Ibid. See also Metropolitan Housing and Planning Council, Minutes of the Meeting of the Redevelopment Committee, November 5, 1953, Metropolitan Planning Council Records, Box 24, Folder 280.
81.
Metropolitan Housing and Planning Council, Minutes of the Meeting of the Redevelopment Committee.
82.
Chicago Plan Commission, "A Plan for the Central Area of Chicago " (Chicago, IL: Chicago Plan Commission , 1952).
83.
Milton C. Mumford , letter to Holman Pettibone re: proposed Committee for a New Chicago, May 12, 1952, Pettibone Papers, Box 7, Folder "January-May 1952"; see also "Plan Chairman Presses Drive to Build City,"Chicago Tribune, February 5, 1952, 12.
84.
Earl Kribben , Minutes of the Third Meeting of General Wood’s Group, November 30, 1953, Pettibone Papers, Box 7, Folder "January-May 1952."
85.
Ibid.
86.
Mumford, letter to Holman Pettibone re: proposed Committee for a New Chicago.
87.
Leverett Lyon , memorandum to Holman Pettibone re: Committee for a New Chicago, May 15, 1952, Pettibone Papers, Box 7, Folder "January-May 1952."
88.
Ibid.
89.
"Proposed Civic Center Hailed by Chicagoans,"Chicago Tribune, March 18, 1954, 5; and "Civic Center Plans Backed by Architects,"Chicago Tribune, March 19, 1954, 16.
90.
"Civic Center Plans Backed by Architects."
91.
Percy Wood, "$288,100,000 Ft. Dearborn Project Approved in Revised Form,"Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1955, 2.
92.
Ibid. The Fort Dearborn project sponsors included Mark Brown, retired president, Harris Trust and Savings Bank; Willis Gale, chairman, Commonwealth Edison Company; Arthur Leonard, president, City National Bank and Trust Company; Hughston McBain, chairman, Marshall Field & Co.; Holman Pettibone, chairman, Chicago Title and Trust Company; Gilbert Scribner, Winston & Co.; and Lawrence Stern, chairman, American National Bank and Trust Company.
93.
Banfield, Political Influence.
94.
Ibid. See also "North Siders Opposed Plan for Projects," Chicago Tribune, February 23, 1957, 9.
95.
Banfield, Political Influence, 130.
96.
Ibid., 144.
97.
Ibid., 141-42.
98.
"Build in Loop Drive Opened by New Group,"Chicago Tribune , January 18, 1957.
99.
Banfield, Political Influence.
100.
Chesly Manly, "Leaders of Chicago Plan for Greater Central Area," Chicago Tribune, September 8, 1957, 5.
101.
Banfield, Political Influence.
102.
Manly, "Leaders of Chicago"; and Chicago Central Area Committee, draft brochure, 1956, Pettibone Papers, Box 11, Folder "August-December 1956."
103.
The original members of the executive committee of the Chicago Central Area Committee were Joseph Block, president, Inland Steel Company; Fairfax Cone, president, Foote, Cone & Belding; Otto Eitel, president, Bismarck Hotel Company; Newton Farr, partner, Farr, Chinnock & Sampson; Wayne Johnston, president, Illinois Central System; William Kahler president, Illinois Bell Telephone Company; Homer Livingston, president, First National Bank; Hughston McBain, chairman, Marshall Field & Co.; Charles Murphy, partner, Naess & Murphy; William Patterson, president, United Airlines; John Pirie Jr., president, Carson, Pirie, Scott & Co.; and Kenneth Zwiener, president, Harris Trust & Savings Bank. See Chicago Central Area Committee, draft brochure.
104.
Ibid., 7.
105.
Banfield, Political Influence; and "Group Pushes Building Boom in Loop Area, Chicago Tribune, December 26, 1961, 13.
106.
Peter Joseph O’Malley, "Mayor Martin H. Kennelly of Chicago: A Political Biography" (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Chicago, 1980).
107.
See Roger Biles , Richard J. Daley: Politics, Race, and the Governing of Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995); and Milton Rakove, Don’t Make No Waves, Don’t Back No Losers: An Insider’s Analysis of the Daley Machine (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975). Daley’s principal source of leverage in dealings with the city council was the control he exercised as party boss over the city’s vast army of patronage workers. Loyal aldermen were rewarded generously with patronage positions, while disloyal aldermen saw the patronage positions at their disposal cut.
108.
Biles, Richard J. Daley; Ferman, Challenging the Growth Machine; and Rast, Remaking Chicago.
109.
Banfield, Political Influence, 154.
110.
Ibid., 155-56.
111.
Department of City Planning, Development Plan for the Central Area of Chicago (Chicago, IL: Department of City Planning, 1958), 24.
112.
Ibid., 8.
113.
Ibid., 26.
114.
Also included in the 1958 Development Plan were proposals for new government buildings as anchors for the north and south Loop, a new University of Illinois campus immediately south of downtown, the elimination of near-downtown rail yards, and transportation improvements to improve access to the central business district.
115.
South Side Planning Board, Statement of Position on the Central Area Plan, October 15, 1958, ASPO Records, Box 3, Folder 27.
116.
Ibid., 2.
117.
Thomas Buck, "Loop Surges toward Its Greatest Era," Chicago Tribune , November 13, 1959, 3. 118. "A Greater Downtown Chicago,"Chicago Tribune , May 19, 1963, 24.
118.
Banfield, Political Influence; see also "The Central Area Plan," Chicago Tribune, August 24, 1958, 16.
119.
Thomas Buck, "Building Boom Revives Downtown Area of Chicago," Chicago Tribune, December 24, 1961, 6.
120.
Ibid. See also Gregory D.Squires, Larry Bennett, Kathleen McCourt, and Philip Nyden, Chicago: Race, Class, and the Response to Urban Decline ( Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1987), 166.
121.
Greer, "The Politics of Decline and Growth," 121.
122.
See Joel Rast, "Critical Junctures, Long-Term Processes: Urban Redevelopment in Chicago and Milwaukee, 1945-1980," Social Science History 33 (2009): 393-426.
123.
South Side Planning Board, Newsletter, July 1958, ASPO Records, Box 3, Folder 27.
124.
South Side Planning Board, Resolution Opposing Current CHA Site Program, June 18, 1958, ASPO Records, Box 3, Folder 27.
125.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto.
126.
Greer, "Politics of Decline and Growth," 133.
127.
Chicago Central AreaCommittee, Chicago21: A Plan for the Central Area Communities (Chicago, IL: Chicago Central Area Committee, 1973), 7.
128.
The site was occupied at the time by underutilized rail yards.
129.
David Emmons , "Dearborn Park/South Loop New Town: A Project in the Chicago 21 Plan" (Chicago: Citizens Information Service of Illinois, 1977).
130.
Ibid.
131.
John J. Betancur, Deborah E. Bennett, and Patricia Wright, "Effective Strategies for Community Economic Development," in Challenging Uneven Development: An Urban Agenda for the 1990s, ed. Philip W. Nyden and Wim Wiewel ( New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 198-224.
132.
Gerald D. Suttles, The Man-Made City: The Land-Use Confidence Game in Chicago (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 175. For a detailed history of the development of Dearborn Park, see Lois Wille, At Home in the Loop: How Clout and Community Built Chicago’s Dearborn Park (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997).
133.
Ibid. See also Rast, Remaking Chicago, 33.
134.
Some scholars have emphasized how structural economic changes constrained development options for cities in the postwar era and subsequent decades. See Paul Peterson, City Limits (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1981); and Mark Gottdiener, The Decline of Urban Politics: Political Theory and the Crisis of the Local State (London: Sage, 1987). For alternative perspectives emphasizing agency over structure, see Rast, Remaking Chicago; and Gerald Berk and Todd Swanstrom, "Expanding the Agenda of Regime Theory: Republican Cities in the Age of Industry" (Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Political Science Association, New York, NY, August 31-September 4, 1994). See Rast, Remaking Chicago, for an overview of the structure-agency debate in analyses of postwar urban redevelopment.
