In the first half of the twentieth century, many African Americans placed their hopes in property ownership and upward mobility to legitimize black claims to full citizenship. However, “black pioneers” were caught between a hostile white world and the deteriorating conditions in the overcrowded ghetto. While this story is usually told from the vantage point of whites who reacted to such “invasions” with hostility and flight, I center the experiences of black pioneers who were agents of spatial and socioeconomic expansion as well as instigators of integration. Despite the legal and extralegal barriers erected to keep African Americans in the ghetto, black pioneers consistently demonstrated that they would not be contained by these artificial fences. Most often pioneers were from the black middle class, as these men and women had the means and the business connections to purchase homes in white areas.
St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1945), 64; Chicago Tribune, "Bomb No. 6 Only Annoys Binga; Hurts Neighbors," November 24, 1920; Chicago Tribune, "Binga’s Guard Tries Gun Play After Bombing: Blast Rocks Negro’s Home 7th Time," August 26, 1921.
2.
Chicago Tribune, "Two Bombs Smash Homes of Negroes," March 20, 1919; Chicago Tribune, "Bomb at Home of Colored Real Estate Dealer," December 4, 1919; Chicago Tribune, "Binga Bombed for Third Time: White Man’s Explosive Wrecks Porch at Negro’s Home," December 28, 1919; Chicago Tribune, "Fourth Bomb for Negro’s Home in White Section," February 7, 1920; Chicago Tribune, "Lock Doors of Building; Set Off ‘Race Bomb’: Negro Banker’s Flat Building Damaged," February 2, 1920.
3.
Chicago Commission on Race Relations (CCRR), The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 131.
4.
For examples of race relations and neighborhood racial change mainly from the vantage point of whites, see Eileen M. McMahon, What Parish are You From?: A Chicago Irish Community and Race Relations (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995); Thomas Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); Gerald Gamm, Urban Exodus: Why the Jews Left Boston and the Catholics Stayed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Stephen Grant Meyer, As Long As They Don’t Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighborhoods (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2000); Amanda Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); David M.P. Freund, Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2007).
5.
William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 7, 49-61. See also John Bauman, Norman Hummon, and Edward Muller, "Public Housing, Isolation, and the Urban Underclass: Philadelphia’s Richard Allen Homes, 1941-1965," Journal of Urban History 17 (May 1991): 264-92; William J. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931-1991 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 43; Alan Ehrenhalt, The Lost City: Discovering the Forgotten Virtues of Community in the Chicago of the 1950s (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 140; Robert G. Spinney, City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000), 207-08.
6.
See, for example, Richard Lacayo, "Between Two Worlds," Time, March 13, 1989; Dawn Turner Trice, "Community’s Woes May Not Be a Matter of Class," Chicago Tribune, July 17, 2006; Leon Dash, Rosa Lee: A Mother and Her Family in Urban America (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 252-56.
7.
Terri Schultz, "Suburban Negroes Probe Ways, Means to Build Toward Significant Integration," Chicago Tribune, January 30, 1969; Dempsey J. Travis, I Refuse to Learn to Fail: The Autobiography of Dempsey J. Travis (Chicago: Urban Research Press, 1992), 2-3, 14; Timuel D. Black, Jr., Bridges of Memory: Chicago’s First Wave of Black Migration (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2003), 117. For a refutation of the "golden age" thesis, see Norman Fainstein and Susan Nesbitt, "Did the Black Ghetto Have a Golden Age?: Class Structure and Class Segregation in New York City, 1949-1970, With Initial Evidence for 1990," Journal of Urban History 23 (November 1996): 3-28.
8.
Mary Pattillo-McCoy, Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 23.
9.
Langston Hughes , "Do Big Negroes Keep Little Negroes Down? " Negro Digest (November 1951): 79, 82; E. Franklin Frazier , "Some Aspects of Negro Business," Opportunity2 (October 1924): 293-97.
10.
W. Lloyd Warner, Buford H. Junker, and Walter A. Adams, Color and Human Nature: Negro Personality Development in a Northern City (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1941), 85; P. L. Prattis, "Chicago’s 400," Washington Intercollegiate Club, The Negro in Chicago, 1779 to 1929, vol. 2 (Chicago, 1929), 84-87; Carl Osthaus, "The Rise and Fall of Jesse Binga, Black Financier," Journal of Negro History 58 no. 1 (1973): 46-47; Chicago Defender, "Banker Binga in Jail Hospital: Held for $300,000 Embezzlement," March 14, 1931.
11.
Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 521.
12.
E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), 100-07. Following the Chicago School’s theory of radial expansion, Frazier divided the Black Belt into seven zones with varying class compositions. See also CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 155; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 382, 604-05.
13.
Allan H. Spear , Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 148-49.
14.
Chicago Defender , "Neighborhood Pride," September 29, 1923.
15.
Chicago Defender, "Citizens Head World in Business," May 3, 1930; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 663-64; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 155, 158, 164-65; National Committee on Negro Housing, "The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing," July, 1931, Irene McCoy Gaines Papers (IMG), Box 1, Folder 10, Chicago History Museum. In 1920, 29.8 percent of blacks in Woodlawn and 25 percent of blacks in Englewood owned their homes, compared to zero homeowners in the northernmost zone of the Black Belt. Frazier, Negro Family in Chicago, 127, 135n1.
16.
Christopher Van Buren, interview with Hattie E. Lawrence, July 27, 1937, Illinois Writer’s Project Papers (IWP), Box 32, Folder 2, Carter Woodson Library, Chicago; Mahalia Jackson with Evan McLeod Wylie, Movin’ On Up, (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1966), 47; National Committee on Negro Housing, "The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing," July, 1931, IMG, Box 1, Folder 10; "Notes on the Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments, from Rosenwald annual reports, 1935, 1937," November 14, 1940 to December 6, 1940, IWP, Box 37, Folder 27.
17.
CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 19, 186-88; M. W. Newman, "Trouble Makers," Half-Century Magazine, June, 1920, 17; Southside Community Committee, Bright Shadows in Bronzetown: The Story of the Southside Community Committee (Chicago, 1949), 65.
18.
Chicago Daily News, "How Some Blocks Keep Blight Away," July 13, 1953.
19.
Chicago Defender, "Defender to Give Prizes for Best Kept Lawns," June 4, 1921; Mrs. George H. Graham, "Editor’s Mail," Chicago Defender, May 14, 1921; Half-Century Magazine, "Here and There," September/ October 1924; Rebecca Stiles Taylor, "Federated Clubs: Block Organizations are Becoming Popular," Chicago Defender, June 5, 1948.
20.
Chicago Defender , "Defender to Give Prizes for Best Kept Lawns ," June 4, 1921; Chicago Defender , "Neighborhood Improvement," January 17, 1920.
21.
Rev. L. K. Williams, "A Square Deal For The Negro," Chicago Whip, April 3, 1920; Spear, Black Chicago, 148-49, Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 12, 204; Robert C. Weaver, Negro Ghetto (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948), 87.
22.
Chicago Defender , "Our Opinions: Any Way You Turn You’re Wrong," December 9, 1950.
23.
James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 139.
24.
Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 659-60.
25.
Ccrr, Negro in Chicago, 155, 158, 164-65; Alice Quan Rood, "A Study of Social Conditions among the Negroes on Federal Street between Forty-Fifth Street and Fifty-third Street" (unpublished master’s thesis, University of Chicago, 1924), 32-36.
26.
Frazier, Negro Family in Chicago, 111-12.
27.
Edith Abbott , The Tenements of Chicago, 1908-1935 ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1936), 121; John T. Clark, "When the Negro Resident Organizes," Opportunity (June 1934): 168.
28.
Katherine Johnson, "Can the Southside be Cleaned up for the World’s Fair?" Washington Intercollegiate Club, The Negro in Chicago, 1779 to 1929, vol. 2, (Chicago : 1929), 60-61.
29.
Roi Ottley, The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1955), 295-97. In 1921 the death rate for blacks in Illinois was 18.1 per one thousand; by contrast black mortality rates in Mississippi and Louisiana were 13.5 and 13.9. David McBride, From TB to AIDS: Epidemics among Urban Blacks since 1900 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991), 36.
30.
H.L. Harris , Jr., "Negro Mortality Rates in Chicago," Social Science Review1 (March 1927): 58-60; William M. Tuttle, Jr. , Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 ( New York: Atheneum, 1970), 164.
31.
McBride, From TB to AIDS, 36-37.
32.
Ottley, The Lonely Warrior , 295-97.
33.
Frank London Brown, Trumbull Park (Chicago : Henry Regnery, 1959), 20.
34.
Warner, Junker , and Adams, Color and Human Nature, 168.
35.
Southside Community Committee, Bright Shadows in Bronzetown, 29; Thomas Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle-Class Reform in Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 148.
36.
William Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1990), 189.
37.
Warner, Junker, and Adams, Color and Human Nature, 34; Enoch P. Waters, American Diary: A Personal History of the Black Press (Chicago: Path Press, 1987), 71; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 516; Vattel Elbert Daniel, "Ritual in Chicago’s South Side Churches of Negroes" (unpublished PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1940), 99-100; Hylan Garnet Lewis, "Social Differentiation in the Negro Community," (unpublished master’s thesis, University of Chicago, 1936), 77; Carter G. Woodson, The Negro Professional Man and the Community (New York: Negro Universities Press, [1934] 1969), xi; Ethel R. Harris, "A Study of Voluntary Social Activity Among the Professional Negroes in Chicago" (unpublished master’s thesis, University of Chicago, 1937), 7, 17-18, 21-22; "The History of Good Shepherd Congregational Church, Chicago" June 18, 1941, IWP, Box 5, Folder 18.
38.
Langston Hughes , The Big Sea (New York: Knopf, 1945), 33.
39.
Sylvia Hood Washington, Packing Them In: An Archeology of Environmental Racism in Chicago, 1865-1954 (New York: Lexington Books, 2005), 139.
40.
Ibid.
41.
Victoria W. Wolcott, Remaking Respectability: African American Women in Interwar Detroit (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 5-6.
42.
Walter Reckless , Vice In Chicago (Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1933 ), 3-5; Spear, Black Chicago, 25; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 343.
43.
Chicago Defender , "To Indict in Vice Probe," September 15, 1928; Reckless, Vice In Chicago, 86-87; Robin Bachin, Building the South Side: Urban Space and Civic Culture in Chicago, 1890-1919 (Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 2004), 254 .
44.
Paul G. Cressey, The Taxi-Dance Hall: A Sociological Study in Commercialized Recreation and City Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), 44; Chicago Tribune, "Black and Tan Vice Wide Open in Old Levee," August 25, 1917; Chicago Tribune, "Black and Tan Vice," December 1, 1921; Edward E. Wilson, "The Responsibility for Crime," Opportunity 7, no. 3 (March 1929): 95-97; Kevin J. Mumford, Interzones: Black/White Sex Districts in Chicago and New York in the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 96; Reckless, Vice In Chicago, 28-29.
45.
Chicago Defender, "Chicago’s Underworld Shaken by Vice Probe," August 25, 1928. Buffet flats were operations that offered a full assortment of illegal services including bootlegged liquor, narcotics, gambling, and prostitution.
46.
Edith Abbott, The Tenements of Chicago, 325; Johnson, "Can the Southside be Cleaned up for the World’s Fair?," 61; Clarence Cunningham and Bertram Moss, "Commission on Intercommunity Relationship and Hyde Park-Kenwood Council of Churches and Synagogues," 21-22, January 24, 1940, Metropolitan Housing and Planning Commission Papers (MHPC), Accession 74-20, Box 16 (supplement II), Folder 184, Daley Library, University of Illinois-Chicago.
47.
Raymond Lee Gibbs, "The Life Cycle of Oakland Community" (unpublished master’s thesis, University of Chicago, 1937), 179-83; Robert Taylor, "Effect of the Depression on Tenants of Michigan Blvd. Garden Apartments," 1935, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; Raymond De Orro, "Why Not Clean Up This Vice?" Chicago Defender, October 12, 1935; Mumford, Interzones, 102-03.
48.
Samuel Strong , "Social Types in the Negro Community of Chicago: An Example of the Social Type Method" (unpublished PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1940), 246, 269-70; Chicago Defender, "Prostitution Arises From Lack of Work," November 10, 1928.
49.
Wolcott, RemakingRespectability, 106-13. For discussions of the lives of prostitutes, see Judy Coffin, "Artisans of the Sidewalk," Radical History Review26 (1982 ): 89-101; Christine Overall, "What’s Wrong with Prostitution? Evaluating Sex Work," Signs17 (Summer 1992): 705-24.
50.
Albert Dunham, "Background Paper," October 5, 1928, EWB, Box 143, Folder 1; Mr. Thomas of the Committee of Fifteen, "Effect of the Depression on Prostitution," and Taylor, "Effect of the Depression on Tenants of Michigan Blvd. Garden Apartments," 1935, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; Interview with Rev. S. A. Bryant, February 2, 1934, EWB, Box 89, Folder 5.
51.
Joanne J.Meyerowitz, WomenAdrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1930 ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 39.
52.
Mumford, Interzones, 180; Chicago Defender, "Uplifters Use Smoked Glasses to View Vice," June 10, 1922.
53.
Chicago Defender, "Chicago’s Underworld Shaken by Vice Probe," August 25, 1928.
54.
Genevieve Forbes, "Color Line Lost in Abandoned Revels at Ritz," Chicago Tribune, July 19, 1922; Chicago Defender, "Evening Club Hears Pastor in Vice Talk," September 23, 1922; Chicago Defender, "Vice is Vice," January 27, 1923; Mr. Thomas of the Committee of Fifteen, "Effect of the Depression on Prostitution," and Taylor, "Effect of the Depression on Tenants of Michigan Blvd. Garden Apartments," 1935, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; Nelson Algren, "The World’s Busiest Police Station," Negro Digest (Jan., 1950), 6.
55.
Chicago Defender, "Worthless People," July 10, 1915; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 16; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 658; Southside Community Committee, Bright Shadows In Bronzetown, 31-32; Warner, Junker, and Adams, Color and Human Nature, 145, 199-200.
56.
Harris, " A Study of Voluntary Social Activity Among the Professional Negroes in Chicago ," 13-14; Warner, Junker, and Adams, Color and Human Nature, 121.
57.
Myra Hill Colson, "Home Work Among Negro Women in Chicago " (unpublished master’s thesis, University of Chicago , 1928), 117; Mathilde Bunton, "Taverns, Essay on African-American Owned Taverns in Chicago," 1937, 3-4, IWP, Box 26, Folder 6.
58.
Waters E. Turpin , O Canaan! (New York : Doubleday, Doran, 1939), 26, 75.
59.
Cyrus Colter , "Mary’s Convert," in The Amoralists & Other Tales: Collected Stories by Cyrus Colter ( New York : Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1988 ), 98.
60.
"Sermon of S. E. J. Watson, Pilgrim Baptist Church," March 12, 1922, Robert E. Park Papers, Box 2, Folder 5, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago; Daniel, "Ritual in Chicago’s South Side Churches of Negroes," 80.
61.
Dempsey J. Travis, An Autobiography of Black Chicago (Chicago, Urban Research Institute, 1981), 43-44; Waters, American Diary, 166-67. For other examples of visible prostitution in residential areas of the Black Belt, see Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago, 100-01; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 656-57.
62.
Sophonisba Breckinridge , "The Color Line in the Housing Problem," Survey, February 1, 1913.
63.
Harold F. Gosnell, Negro Politicians: The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935), 115, 119; Reckless , Vice In Chicago, 192.
64.
Half-Century Magazine, "Stagnation," November/December, 1923; Rood, "Study of Social Conditions among the Negroes on Federal Street between Forty-Fifth Street and Fifty-Third Street," 50; Abbott, The Tenements of Chicago, 118; Chicago Defender, "The Negro in Chicago," July 24, 1943; Oscar DePriest, "Today’s Negroes Have No Guts ," Negro Digest (March 1950), 87.
65.
B. Hall, "Notes on Segregated Housing in Chicago before the 1919 Race Riot," IWP, Box 37, Folder 12. For a comprehensive study of restrictive covenants in Chicago, see Wendy Plotkin, "Deeds of Mistrust: Race, Housing, and Restrictive Covenants in Chicago, 1900-1953" (unpublished PhD diss., University of Illinois at Chicago, 1999). For the government’s role in legal segregation, see Clement E. Vose, Caucasians Only: The Supreme Court, the NAACP, and the Restrictive Covenant Cases (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959) and Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 197-215. For the "color tax," see Corienne Robinson, "Relationship Between Condition of Public Dwellings and Rentals, by Race," Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 22 (August 1946), 302.
66.
J. SaundersRedding, No Day of Triumph ( New York: Harper & Brothers, 1942), 17.
67.
Chicago Defender , "Bomb Wrecks Nurses’ Home: Assassin Plants Dynamite in Doorway While Girls Sleep," April 30, 1921 ; Ccrr, Negro in Chicago , 126.
68.
CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 122-27; Half-Century Magazine, "That Bombing Crusade Against Colored People," May 1919; Chicago Defender, "27 Bombings Hit Chicago Negro Homes: Local Police Flayed for Failure to Act in Reign of Terror," July 6, 1946; "Community Forum Meeting on Trumbull Park," May 23, 1954, IMG, Box 4, Folder 1; Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 69-72; Lawrence Rieser, "An Analysis of the Reporting of Racial Incidents in Chicago, 1945 to 1950" (unpublished master’s thesis, University of Chicago, 1951), 48-51, 64, 77; Irene McCoy Gaines note, n.d. but c. 1931, IMG, Box 1, Folder 10.
69.
CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 3, 34; Chicago Tribune, "Two Bombs Smash Homes of Negroes," March 20, 1919; Chicago Defender, "Bomb Wrecks Nurses’ Home: Assassin Plants Dynamite in Doorway While Girls Sleep," April 30, 1921; DePriest quoted in Gosnell, Negro Politicians, 177, 193.
70.
J.S. Brookins , "Voice of the People: Negro Reaction to Evanstonian Objection," Chicago Tribune, March 1, 1923 .
71.
Chicago Defender, "Meet to Halt Evils of Kenwood Rebels," January 31, 1920; Harris Gaines state senate campaign brochure, 1922, IMG, Box 1, Folder 6; Warner, Junker, and Adams, Color and Human Nature, 199-200; Otis Dudley Duncan and Beverly Duncan, The Negro Population of Chicago: A Study of Residential Succession (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), 106; Chicago Defender, "Launch Drive to Halt Segregation," February 7, 1920.
72.
Robert J. Blakely with Marcus Shepard, Earl B. Dickerson: A Voice for Freedom and Equality (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 104; Clement E. Vose, Caucasians Only: The Supreme Court, the NAACP, and the Restrictive Covenant Cases ( Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959), 55.
73.
Jane Jones , "Links in the Chain," Half-Century Magazine, July/August 1923.
74.
W.E.B. DuBois , "The Challenge of Detroit," The Crisis (November 1925): 7-10; The Crisis, "The Hansberrys of Chicago: They Join Business Acumen with Social Vision," (April 1941): 106-07; DePriest, "Today’s Negroes Have No Guts ," 84-88.
75.
Lenore Mummy and Dorothy Phillips, "A Dream Come True," Negro Digest2 (May 1944 ): 55.
76.
Egbert Schietinger, "Real Estate TransfersDuring Negro Invasion: A Case Study" (unpublished master’s thesis, University of Chicago, 1948), 27-29.
77.
Chicago Tribune, "Lawyer Warns Negroes Here to Arm Selves: Former Prosecutor Sees Danger of Riots in Chicago," July 4, 1917; Sundiata Cha-Jua "‘A Warlike Demonstration’: Legalism, Violent Self-Help and Electoral Politics, in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Urban History 26 (July 2000): 591-629; Mark Robert Schneider, "We Return Fighting": The Civil Rights Movement in the Jazz Age (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2002), 7, 27-28; Sterling D. Spero and Abram L. Harris, The Black Worker: The Negro and the Labor Movement, (New York: Atheneum [1931] 1968), 386. Spero and Harris cite intellectuals such as Claude McKay; the editors of radical publications like the Crusader, the Messenger, and the Challenge; and the Garveyite movement.
78.
Chicago Defender, "Robey Street Mob Slays Innocent Man: Charles Jackson Meets Death at Hands of White Hoodlums," July 5, 1919. Although Jackson died, the Defender remarked that he used his army pistol, earned while fighting "the other ‘Huns’ in the world’s struggle for democracy," to shoot five members of a white mob that was assaulting his brother.
79.
Half-Century Magazine, " Race Riots in Chicago" (September 1919): 18; Joseph Dalton, "Drowning Those Returning South," G. T., "Giving a Punch for Punch," and Ethan Jackson, "Thrilling the South," Half-Century Magazine (October 1919): 21.
80.
Ccrr, Negro in Chicago, 481.
81.
Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2004), 25-26. Chicago Tribune, "Binga’s Guard Tries Gun Play After Bombing: Blast Rocks Negro’s Home 7th Time," August 26, 1921; Turpin, O Canaan!, 44-45; Brown, Trumbull Park, 113, 315, 362; Frank London Brown, The Myth Maker (Chicago: Path Press, 1969), 110.
82.
Ccrr, Negro in Chicago, 127-28.
83.
Lorraine Hansberry , To Be Young, Gifted, and Black ( Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), 20-21.
84.
Blakely with Shepard, Earl B. Dickerson: A Voice for Freedom and Equality, 38.
85.
Abbott, The Tenements of Chicago, 119; Frederic M. Thrasher, The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927), 16, 202-03; Tuttle, Race Riot, 102-03.
86.
Walter White , A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White (New York: The Viking Press , 1948), 45-46.
87.
Leon Forrest , The Furious Voice for Freedom: Essays on Life (Wakefield, RI: Asphodel Press, 1994), 55-60, 115; Arnold Shankman, Ambivalent Friends: Afro-Americans View the Immigrant (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 50.
88.
Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis , 57; Chicago Defender, "No Niggers Live in This Section," May 29, 1926.
89.
Raymond Jenkins , "Would Urge Education," Half-Century Magazine, (December 1920): 17. For other examples of this sentiment, see Half-Century Magazine, "Here and There," (July/August 1924): 6; Harriette Hall, "Says Negroes’ Problem Is Economic Not Social," Chicago Defender, November 17, 1945.
90.
Illinois Association for Criminal Justice , The Illinois Crime Survey (Chicago : Blakely Printing, 1929), 935, 969-73.
91.
Ccrr, Negro in Chicago , 116-22; Chicago Defender, "Launch Drive to Halt Segregation," February 7, 1920 .
92.
Waters, American Diary, 27; Seligman, Block by Block, 79-82; Irving Cutler, The Jews of Chicago: From Shtetl to Suburb (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 231-33.
93.
Gamm, Urban Exodus, 8-13.
94.
Hirsch, 4-5; Chicago Daily News, "Growing Negro Districts Need Housing," February 1, 1949.
95.
Chicago Council Against Racial and Religious Discrimination, Against Discrimination 3, no. 1 (August 3, 1946).
96.
Ernestine Cofield , "Oak Park Fought Battle for Percy Julian Family ," Chicago Defender, October 8, 1962 .
