When the Philadelphia Tribune, the National Negro Congress, and other African American organizations launched a campaign for better housing in the mid-1930s, they displayed the hope many black Philadelphians had that public housing could improve their lives. That campaign, which succeeded in obtaining federal support for housing in Philadelphia, led to the construction of several projects, including the James Weldon Johnson and Richard Allen Homes. Many of the city’s African Americans regarded the new projects with great optimism. Over time, however, they learned that government officials, pressured by white Philadelphians, would not place “black” public housing in white neighborhoods, which meant the projects actually deepened segregation. Ironically, African Americans campaigned for, and won, housing projects that improved their lives in the short term but at the same time deepened their long-term problems. Paying attention to grassroots black politics, this article suggests, helps us understand how African Americans shaped their lives, but also argues that we must pay attention to the limits of their activism.
Philadelphia Tribune, Feb. 28, 1935, 20. This article draws on and expands arguments I make in my book, Philadelphia Divided: Race and Politics in the City of Brotherly Love (Chapel Hill, 2007).
2.
John Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia, 1987), 172-73. Bauman, Public Housing, provides the definitive work on public housing in Philadelphia. See also John Bauman, Norman Hummon, and Edward Muller, "Public Housing, Isolation, and the Urban Underclass: Philadelphia’s Richard Allen Homes, 1941-1965," Journal of Urban History 17 (1991): 264-92; John Bauman, "Black Slums/Black Projects: The New Deal and Negro Housing in Philadelphia," Pennsylvania History 41 (1974): 311-38; and Guian McKee, "Liberal Ends through Illiberal Means: Race, Urban Renewal, and Community in the Eastwick Section of Philadelphia, 1949-1990," Journal of Urban History 27 (2001): 547-83.
3.
Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), 349; Robert Weaver, "The Role of the Federal Government," in John Bracey Jr., August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., The Rise of the Ghetto (Belmont, 1971), 122; Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Chicago, 1983), 254-55; Raymond Mohl, "Planned Destruction: The Interstates and Central City Housing," and Kristin Szylvian, "The Federal Housing Program during World War II," in John Bauman, Roger Biles, and Kristin Szylvian, eds., From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America (University Park, 2000); and Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York, 1991). Other works that inform my thinking about race and public housing include Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985), 195-219; Arnold Hirsch and Raymond Mohl, eds., Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America (New Brunswick, 1993); Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade (New York, 1978), 58-83; Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York, 1994), 23-24; Amanda Seligman, "What Is the Second Ghetto?" Journal of Urban History 29 (2003): 272-80; and Raymond Mohl, "The Second Ghetto Thesis and the Power of History," Journal of Urban History 29 (2003): 243-56. For a critique of this literature focusing on redlining and segregation, see Amy Hillier, "Redlining and the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation," Journal of Urban History 29 (2003): 394-420; and Amy Hillier, "Who Received Loans? Home Owners’ Loan Corporation Lending and Discrimination in Philadelphia in the 1930s," Journal of Planning History 2 (2003): 3-24.
4.
My thinking is informed by a few studies that do pay more attention to African Americans’ lived experience, although they place less emphasis on the black role in the policy-making process. See Sudhir Venkatesh, American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto (Cambridge, 2000); and J. S. Fuerst, When Public Housing Was Paradise: Building Community in Chicago (Westport, 2003).
5.
Thomas Sugrue, "Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945-1969," Journal of American History 91 (2004): 147, 173. Lizabeth Cohen made a similar argument about conceptualizing the history of government policy making as a bottom-up process in Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York, 1990).
6.
Ira Katznelson, Black Men, White Cities: Race, Politics, and Migration in the United State, 1900-30 and Britain 1948-68 (New York, 1973), 31-32; Charles Hall, Negroes in the United States, 1920-1932 (New York, 1969), 55; Allen Ballard, One More Day’s Journey: The Story of a Family and a People (New York, 1984), 184; "Some Basic Facts concerning the Negro Population of Philadelphia," undated, Housing Department, Non-white Housing 1939, 1953-60, box 10, "The Real Story about the Big City," Feb. 6, 1959, Urban League of Philadelphia Equal Job Opportunity 1944, 1960, box 2, North American and Public Ledger clippings, folder Clippings-Newspaper 1923, 1958, 1960, box 12, Philadelphia Urban League Papers (PUL), Urban Archives, Temple University, Philadelphia; G. Gordon Brown, Law Administration and Negro-White Relations in Philadelphia: A Study in Race Relations (Westport, 1970), 26-40; Robert O’Donnell, "Pennsylvania’s Self-Survey," Interracial Review 26 (April 1953): 61-64; Frederic Miller, "The Black Migration to Philadelphia: A 1924 Profile," in Joe Trotter, ed., African Americans in Pennsylvania: Shifting Historical Perspectives (University Park, 1997), 289; Thomas Woofter and Madge Headley Priest, Negro Housing in Philadelphia: A Study (Philadelphia, 1927); Clara Hardin, The Negroes of Philadelphia: The Cultural Adjustment of a Minority Group (Bryn Mawr, 1945), 87; and David McBride, Integrating the City of Medicine: Blacks in Philadelphia Health Care, 1910-1965 (Philadelphia, 1989), 55, 60-61, 32. Important studies of the great migration include James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago, 1989); Joe Trotter, Great Migration in Historical Perspective: New Dimensions of Race, Class, and Gender (Bloomington, 1991), Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks’ Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916-30 (Urbana, 1987); Kenneth Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana, 1976); and Neil Fligstein, Going North, Migration of Blacks and Whites from the South, 1900-1950 (New York, 1981).
7.
Hardin, Negroes of Philadelphia, 49; Margaret Tinkcom, "Depression and War, 1929-1946," in Russell Weigley, ed., Philadelphia: A 300 Year History (New York, 1982), 611; Stanley Arnold, "Building the Beloved Community: Philadelphia’s Interracial Civil Rights Organizations and Race Relations, 1930-1970" (PhD diss., Temple University, 1999), 136; U.S. Department of Labor, Monthly Labor Review (Feb. 1930), 17-24; Philip Scranton, "Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring: The Philadelphia Region, 1900-1980," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 116 (Oct. 1992): 423; Thomas Coode and John Bauman, People, Poverty, and Politics: Pennsylvanians during the Great Depression (Lewisburg, 1981), 55; and John Bauman and Thomas Coode, "Depression Report: A New Dealer Tours Eastern Pennsylvania," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 104 (Jan. 1980): 97.
8.
August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, Along the Color Line: Explorations in the Black Experience (Urbana, 1976); James Wolfinger, "‘We Are in the Front Lines in the Battle for Democracy’: Carolyn Moore and Black Activism in World War II Philadelphia," Pennsylvania History 72 (Winter 2005): 1-23; H. Viscount Nelson, The Philadelphia NAACP: Epitome of Middle Class Consciousness (Los Angeles, 1972); and H. Viscount Nelson, "The Philadelphia NAACP: Race versus Class Consciousness during the Thirties," Journal of Black Studies 5 (March 1975): 255-76. For more on "respect" and the black middle class, see Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill, 1996); and Willard Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (Bloomington, 1990).
9.
Charles Banner-Haley, To Do Good and to Do Well: Middle-Class Blacks and the Depression, Philadelphia, 1929-1941 (New York, 1993), 149, 160; Ballard, One More Day’s Journey, 223; Arthur Huff Fauset, "Education Procedure for an Emergency," Opportunity 11 (Jan. 1933): 20; and Philadelphia Tribune, Oct. 22, 1936, 1, 3, Dec. 31, 1936, 15. For more on the National Negro Congress (NNC), see Lawrence Wittner, "The National Negro Congress: A Reassessment," American Quarterly 12 (Winter 1970): 883-901.
10.
Philadelphia Tribune, Dec. 31, 1936, 5; and Bauman, Public Housing, 28, 34-37. For more on the black church in Philadelphia, including the way class shaped African American religion, see Robert Gregg, Sparks from the Anvil of Oppression: Philadelphia’s African Methodists and Southern Migrants, 1890-1940 (Philadelphia, 1993); and Banner-Haley, To Do Good, 122-35.
11.
My understanding of the Tribune’s politics comes from reading decades of the newspaper and from the work of Charles Banner-Haley, especially "The Philadelphia Tribune and the Persistence of Black Republicanism during the Great Depression," Pennsylvania History 65 (Spring 1998): 190-202, and To Do Good.
12.
Philadelphia Tribune, March 7, 1935, 1, Feb. 28, 1935, 20.
13.
Philadelphia Tribune, Oct. 22, 1936, 1, Dec. 24, 1936, 1; James Patterson, The New Deal and the States: Federalism in Transition (Princeton, 1969), 168-93; Gail Radford, Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era (Chicago, 1996), 100-101; Anthony Badger, The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933-1940 (Chicago, 1989), 241; and William Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1940 (New York, 1963), 88. The literature on pre-World War II public housing is less developed than that covering the postwar period. Useful sources on the era include Bauman, Public Housing; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier; Radford, Modern Housing for America; Bauman, Biles, and Szylvian, From Tenements to the Taylor Homes; Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (Cambridge, 1981); and Hirsch and Mohl, Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America.
14.
Philadelphia Tribune, Sept. 10, 1936, 1, April 18, 1935, 12, March 28, 1935, 4.
15.
Philadelphia Tribune, March 7, 1935, 20. While the Tribune never discussed W. E. B. DuBois or his classic study, The Philadelphia Negro, the paper’s editors and reporters adopted some of his sociological practices, especially his fine-grained street-level investigations and view that a constricted environment (poor housing, a segregated job market) led to African Americans’ problems in the urban North. The sensational reporting also had more than a touch of Jacob Riis’s muckraking approach to urban reporting. See W. E. B. DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (Philadelphia, 1899); and Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York (New York, 1890).
16.
Ibid.
17.
Philadelphia Tribune, March 7, 1935, 20, March 28, 1935, 20, Sept. 10, 1936, 1.
18.
William Vare, My Forty Years in Politics (Philadelphia, 1933); John Salter, Boss Rule: Portraits in City Politics (New York, 1935); John Salter, "Party Organization in Philadelphia: The Ward Committeeman," American Political Science Review 27 (Aug. 1933): 618-27; Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities (New York, 1904); and Philadelphia Tribune, Feb. 28, 1935, 20.
19.
Bernard Newman, "Housing of Negro Immigrants in Pennsylvania," Jan. 1944, folder 259, box 47, Housing Association of the Delaware Valley Papers (HADV), Urban Archives, Temple University, Philadelphia; Arnold, "Building the Beloved Community," 128-29; Woofter and Priest, Negro Housing, 27-28; and Philadelphia Tribune, April 18, 1935, 12, June 13, 1935, 10. Black activists in Chicago likewise found local real estate interests undermining adequate public housing. See Arvarh Strickland, History of the Chicago Urban League (Urbana, 1966), 128-29.
20.
Philadelphia Tribune, March 28, 1935, 4; and Bauman, Public Housing, 34-35.
21.
Bauman, Public Housing, 34-36; and Strickland, History of the Chicago Urban League, 129. For more on black Philadelphia and the Democratic Party’s political calculations, see Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided; Eugene Hatfield, "The Impact of the New Deal on Black Politics in Pennsylvania, 1928-1936" (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 1979); and James Miller, "The Negro in Pennsylvania Politics with Special Reference to Philadelphia since 1932" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1945).
22.
Philadelphia Tribune, June 13, 1935, 10, Dec. 31, 1936, 15.
23.
Clippings from Philadelphia Inquirer, Dec. 21, 1936, unnamed newspaper, Dec. 21, 1936, and Philadelphia Record, Dec. 22, 1936, Dec. 25, 1936 in Philadelphia Housing Association Clippings (PHAC), reel 1, Urban Archives, Temple University, Philadelphia.
24.
Clippings from unnamed newspaper, Dec. 22, 1936, Dec. 28, 1936, GTM [Germantown?] Bulletin, Dec. 31, 1936 in PHAC, reel 1.
Philadelphia Tribune, Dec. 31, 1936, 15; clippings from Philadelphia Record, Dec. 28, 1936, Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 30, 1936, and Philadelphia Inquirer, Dec. 28, 1936 in PHAC, reel 1; Arnold, "Building the Beloved Community," 140-45; Bauman, "Black Slums/Black Projects," 329; and H. Viscount Nelson, "Race and Class Consciousness of Philadelphia Negroes with Special Emphasis on the Years between 1927 and 1940" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1969), 387. For more on the Tenant’s League, see Mark Naison, Communists in Harlem during the Depression (Urbana, 1983), 19-23. Historians in the past twenty years have emphasized the role of the left, especially the Communist Party, in championing black rights. Besides Naison, Communists in Harlem, see Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, 2003); Robin Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression (Chapel Hill, 1990); Michael Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); and Erik Gellman, "‘Carthage Must Be Destroyed’: Race, City Politics, and the Campaign to Integrate Chicago Transportation Work, 1929-1943," Labor 2 (Summer 2005): 81-114. For a vigorous debate on the role of the left in the black rights movement, see Eric Arnesen, "No ‘Graver Danger’: Black Anticommunism, the Communist Party, and the Race Question," Labor 3 (Winter 2006): 13-52, and the accompanying roundtable.
28.
"Stop the War at Home," undated, "Join," undated, B. Childs to Karl Scholz, Dec. 11, 1939, "Resolution Adopted 9/24/38," "Defend Civil Rights," undated, and "Call to Conference," undated, folder 400, box 60, HADV; Arnold, "Building the Beloved Community," 140-41; clippings from Philadelphia Inquirer, Dec. 28, 1936, and Philadelphia Record, Dec. 27, 1936 in PHAC, reel 1; and Philadelphia Tribune, March 11, 1937, 24.
29.
Bauman, Public Housing, 42-47; WPA-Ethnic Survey, 1938-1941, reel 271, Pennsylvania State Archives, Harrisburg; clipping from Christian Science Monitor, Dec. 18, 1936, Philadelphia Inquirer, Dec. 26, 1936, Dec. 24, 1936, Dec. 21, 1936 in PHAC, reel 1; Coode and Bauman, People, Poverty, and Politics, 214-15; Arnold Hirsch, "Choosing Segregation: Federal Housing Policy between Shelley and Brown," in Bauman, Biles, and Szylvian, From Tenements to the Taylor Homes, 209-210; Radford, Modern Housing for America, 104-5; and J. D. Goodman to Bernard Newman, Oct. 1, 1935, folder 256, box 47, HADV.
30.
Coode and Bauman, People, Poverty, and Politics, 216; WPA-Ethnic Survey, 1938-1941, reel 271; and Philadelphia Housing Authority (PHA), Clearing Slums in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1939), 20-23. Important treatments of conservative restraints on the New Deal include Ira Katznelson, Kim Geiger, and Daniel Kryder, "Limiting Liberalism: The Southern Veto in Congress, 1933-1950," Political Science Quarterly 108 (Summer 1993): 283-306; and James Patterson, Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal: The Growth of the Conservative Coalition in Congress, 1933-1939 (Lexington, 1967).
31.
PHA, Clearing Slums in Philadelphia, 21; and Coode and Bauman, People, Poverty, and Politics, 216.
32.
"For Immediate Release," Feb. 12, 1941, folder 323, box 54, "Preliminary Statement on Housing and Urban Development," Aug. 24, 1944, folder 256, box 47, HADV; and Philadelphia Tribune, June 19, 1943, 20.
33.
Bauman, Public Housing, 47; Theodore Spaulding to Edmund Bacon, Feb. 20, 1941, W. Harry Barnes to Theodore Spaulding, Feb. 22, 1941, folder 323, box 54, HADV; WPA-Ethnic Survey, 1938-1941, reel 271; and Philadelphia Tribune, April 3, 1943, 3.
34.
WPA-Ethnic Survey, 1938-1941, reel 271; and Bauman, Public Housing, 172-73.
35.
New York Times, Aug. 23, 1941, 13; Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996); Robert Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, 2003); "Mayor Lamberton’s Statement," May 13, 1940, folder 322, box 54, HADV; and Bauman, Public Housing, 54-55. Lamberton’s strain of fiscal conservatism was one variant of a belief held by many elite Philadelphians that the private sector rather than the government should solve social and economic problems. For more on the effects of this ideology of privatism on civic culture and urban development, see Sam Bass Warner’s classic The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth (Philadelphia, 1968). Robert Drayer, "J. Hampton Moore: An Old Fashioned Republican" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1961), is also informative.
36.
"Release," May 13, 1940, folder 322, box 43, J. A. MacCallum to Robert Lamberton, May 15, 1940, folder 322, box 54, HADV.
37.
Szylvian, " Federal Housing Program during World War II," 124-25.
38.
James Wolfinger, "‘An Equal Opportunity to Make a Living-and a Life’: The FEPC and Postwar Black Politics," Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 4 (May 2007): 65-94; Allan Winkler, "The Philadelphia Transit Strike of 1944," Journal of American History 59 (June 1972): 73-89; Merl Reed, "Black Workers, Defense Industries, and Federal Agencies in Pennsylvania, 1941-1945," Labor History 27 (Summer 1986): 326-84; G. Gordon Brown, Law Administration and Negro-White Relations in Philadelphia: A Study in Race Relations (Philadelphia, 1947); and Gladys Palmer, "The Philadelphia Labor Market in 1944: Research Report no. 8" (Philadelphia, 1944), 6-9. See also boxes 1-3 of the Records of the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) RG 228 (Philadelphia branch of the National Archives). There is a voluminous literature on race and American society during World War II that sets the context for the Double V campaign. Critical works include Daniel Kryder, Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State during World War II (New York, 2000); Harvard Sitkoff, "Racial Militancy and Interracial Violence in the Second World War," Journal of American History 58 (Dec. 1971): 661-81; Neil Wynn, The Afro-American and the Second World War (London, 1976); John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture during World War II (New York, 1976), 182-220; Richard Dalfiume, "The ‘Forgotten Years’ of the Negro Revolution," Journal of American History 55 (June 1968): 90-106; Richard Polenberg, War and Society: The United States, 1941-1945 (New York, 1972), 99-130; William O’Neill, A Democracy at War: America’s Fight at Home and Abroad in World War II (New York, 1993), 225-46; Nat Brandt, Harlem at War: The Black Experience in World War II (Syracuse, 1996); and Maggi Morehouse, Fighting in the Jim Crow Army: Black Men and Women Remember World War II (Lanham, 2000).
39.
Philadelphia Tribune, May 26, 1945, 10.
40.
Philadelphia Tribune, May 26, 1945, 10, Oct. 9, 1943, 4, Nov. 7, 1942, 4; Bauman, Public Housing, 172-73; clippings from unnamed, undated newspaper, Pittsburgh Courier, Aug. 26, 1943, and Philadelphia Afro-American, Aug. 26, 1943 in Scrapbook of Clippings, 1944-52, box 53, Philadelphia branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers (PNAACP), Urban Archives, Temple University, Philadelphia.
41.
Bauman, Public Housing, 68; Clara Hardin, The Negroes of Philadelphia: The Cultural Adjustment of a Minority Group (Bryn Mawr, 1945), 83; clipping from unnamed newspaper, Jan. 22, 1942 in PHA Clippings, reel 3; and "The Philadelphia Housing Authority Presents Richard Allen Homes," undated, folder 13, box 287, Philadelphia Photographs, Urban Archives, Temple University, Philadelphia.
42.
Clipping from Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, Feb. 4, 1942 in PHA Clippings, reel 3; and Bauman, Public Housing, 67.
43.
Clippings from Philadelphia Inquirer, Feb. 7, 1942, Philadelphia Record, Feb. 9, 1942, and Feb. 4, 1942, and unnamed and undated newspapers in PHA Clippings, reel 3; and Philadelphia Tribune, Feb. 14, 1942, 2.
44.
Woofter and Priest, Negro Housing in Philadelphia, 23; clippings from Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, Feb. 11, 1942, Feb. 5, 1942, Feb. 7, 1942, Feb. 9, 1942 in PHA Clippings, reel 3; Philadelphia Tribune, Feb. 14, 1942, 1-2; and Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, Evening Bulletin Almanac (Philadelphia, 1943), 510.
45.
For more on the Allen Homes case, see Bauman, Public Housing, 67-69. Much like at the Allen Homes, government officials vacillated on who should receive housing at Sojourner Truth. African Americans ultimately received the homes but only after enduring a race riot. Thomas Sugrue cogently argues that riot stemmed largely from the fact that Sojourner Truth was on the borderline between black and white neighborhoods and whites feared the project would open their community to more African American residents. See Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 73-75.
46.
Bauman, Public Housing, 74-75; Philadelphia Tribune, Oct. 9, 1943, 1, Aug. 28, 1943, 2, Nov. 14, 1942, 2; "Confidential," June 28, 1943, folder 327, box 54, HADV; and "Temporary Shipyard Homes," Dec. 6, 1953, folder 15, box 287, Philadelphia Photographs.
47.
Walter Phillips, Magistrate Connor, and Catholic Priest to Commandant, League Island Navy Yard, Mar. 30, 1943, folder 327, box 54, HADV; "Confidential," June 28, 1943, folder 327, box 54, HADV; and John Bracey Jr. and August Meier, eds., Papers of the NAACP (Bethesda: University Publications of America, 1991), part 18, reel 28, part 5, reel 7.
48.
Philadelphia Tribune, July 18, 1942, 20, Nov. 7, 1942, 4, Nov. 14, 1942, 2, May 26, 1945, 10; and Bauman, Public Housing, 74-75.
49.
Elizabeth Longshaw to DSM, June 21, 1946, "Passyunk Representative Ass’n," undated, folder 327, box 54, untitled document, Aug. 11, 1944, folder 256, box 47, HADV; Bauman, Public Housing, 74-75; and clipping from Pittsburgh Courier, Mar. 1, 1944 in Scrapbook of Clippings, 1944-52, box 53, PNAACP.
50.
Philadelphia Tribune, Jan. 5, 1946, 4, Feb. 16, 1946, 2, May 11, 1946, 20; "Families Evicted by Housing Project Hope to Return," undated, folder 13, box 287, Philadelphia Photographs; various articles in envelopes for Clark, Joseph Sill, Jr.-Housing, and Johnson, Allen, and Tasker Homes, Evening Bulletin Morgue, Urban Archives, Temple University, Philadelphia; Bauman, Public Housing, 172-73; Kirk Petshek, The Challenge of Urban Reform: Policies and Programs in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1973), 157; and Bauman, Hummon, and Muller, "Public Housing, Isolation, and the Urban Underclass."
51.
Philadelphia Tribune, Sept. 15, 1945, 9. The starting point for issues of postwar disinvestment and deindustrialization is Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis. See also Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided; Bauman, Hummon, and Muller, "Public Housing, Isolation, and the Urban Underclass"; Venkatesh, American Project; and Lemann, The Promised Land.
52.
In addition to Sugrue, "Affirmative Action from Below," my thinking is also influenced by Steven Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (April 1991): 456-71.
