The term machi, signifying both neighborhood and small town, is a key element for understanding Japanese urban form and city planning. After tracing the origins of the term, this article explores the historic and contemporary significance of the concept and its particular spatial and socioeconomic forms. The article then argues that the concept of machi influenced the ways in which Japanese planners picked up foreign concepts through the nineteenth and particularly the twentieth century, absorbing some ideas and rejecting others. Building on their perception of the city as composed of urban units that allowed for planning in patchwork patterns, leading Japanese planners carefully selected models—independently of international appreciation—making, for example, the book The New Town by the German planner Gottfried Feder a standard reference. The article concludes by arguing that foreign observers must understand the concept of machi to comprehend contemporary Japanese neighborhoods, city life, and urban forms.
For a general history of Japan, see, for example, Edwin O. Reischauer and Albert M. Craig, Japan: Tradition and Transformation, rev. ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989).
2.
On the import of German planning principles, see, for example, Carola Hein and Ishida Yorifusa , "Japanische Stadtplanung und ihre deutschen Wurzeln," Die Alte Stadt25, no. 3 (1998).
3.
Eric Mattie, World's Fairs (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1998); Union Central des Arts Décoratifs, ed., Le livre des expositions universelles 1851-1989 (exhibition catalog) (Paris: éditions des arts décoratifs-herscher, 1983).
4.
See, for example, Lionel Lambourne, Japonisme: Cultural Crossings between Japan and the West (London: Phaidon , 2005); Siegfried Wichmann, Japonisme: The Japanese Influence on Western Art since 1858 (New York : Thames & Hudson, 1999).
5.
See, for example, Norman F. Carver Jr., Form and Space of Japanese Architecture (Tokyo: Shokokusha, 1955); Arthur Drexler, The Architecture of Japan ( New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1955); Walter Gropius and Kenzo Tange, Katsura: Tradition and Creation in Japanese Architecture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960); Karin Kirsch , ed., Die neue Wohnung und das alte Japan: Architekten planen für sich selbst: Edward William Godwin, Frank Lloyd Wright, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Walter Gropius, Egon Eiermann, Toyo Ito ( Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1996); Margo Stipe, "Wright and Japan," in Frank Lloyd Wright, Europe and Beyond, ed. Anthony Alofsin (Berkeley: University of California Press , 1999).
6.
Bruno Taut, for example, comments on the ugliness of modernizing Tokyo. See Bruno Taut, Cities and People of Japan, 2d ed. ( Tokyo: Sanseido Press, [1937] 1958).
7.
Yazaki Takeo, Social Change and the City in Japan (Tokyo: Japan Publications, 1968); Takeo Yazaki, The Japanese City: A Sociological Analysis (Tokyo: Japan Publications Trading Company, 1963).
8.
This lecture of the city connects the current city to its historical roots rather than foreign influences. Known as Tôkyôron and related to Edogaku, it is part of a larger group of publications starting in the 1930s, the so-called Nihonjinron, arguing for a specific Japanese identity due to a special link between nature, space, and Japanese society. For an examination of Nihonjinron and Tôkyôron, see, for example, Harumi Befu, "Nationalism and Nihonjinron," in Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, ed. Harumi Befu (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of Berkeley, 1993); Augustin Berque, "La città giapponese. Uso di un'immagine ," Casabella53, no. 608-609 (1994); Augustin Berque, "Paroles sur la ville et expression urbaine. Tôkyô années quatre-vingts ," in La Qualité de la Ville. Urbanité française, urbanité nippone, ed. Augustin Berque ( Tokyo: Publications de la Maison Franco-Japonaise, 1987); Augustin Berque, "Tokyo as Emblem of a Postmodern Paradigm ," in Relating Architecture to Landscape, ed. Jan Birksted (London: E & FN Spon, 1999); Sonia Engberts, "Le territoire pensé à travers la couleur au Japon," in Le territoire pensé: géographie des représentations territoriales, ed. Aline Lechaume Frédéric Lasserre (Sainte-Foy: Presses de l'Université du Québec, 2003); Yoshio Sugimoto and Ross E. Mouer , Constructs for Understanding Japan (London: K. Paul International, 1989).
9.
Paul Waley, "Re-scripting the City: Tokyo from Ugly Duckling to Cool Cat," Japan Forum18, no. 3 (2006).
10.
Ibid., 367. Waley also points to a historical examination by Henry Smith of Tokyo as a collection of villages: Henry D. Smith, "Mura (birejji) to shite no Tôkyô: henten suru kindai Nihon no shutuzô" [Tokyo as a Village: The Changing Image of the Modern Japanese Capital], in Shiriizu toshi kenchiku rekishi 6: toshi bunken no seijuku [Series on the History of Urban Architecture Vol. 6: A Mature Urban Culture], ed. Hiroyuki Suzuki (Tokyo: Tôkyô Daigaku Shuppankai, 2006).
11.
Henry D.Smith lists and examines foreign references to Tokyo as a collection of villages from 1889 to 1998: Smith, "Mura (birejji) to shite no Tôkyô."
12.
See Clarence Arthur Perry, "The Neighborhood Unit: A Scheme of Arrangement for the Family-Life Community," in Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs, Vol. 7, ed. Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs ( New York: Arno Press, [1929] 1974), 22.
13.
Barrie Shelton's book Learning from the Japanese City illustrates this approach: Barrie Shelton, Learning from the Japanese City: West Meets East in Urban Design (London: E and FN Spon, 1999).
14.
Recent English-language publications on the Japanese city and aspects of community development aspects include Nicolas Fiévé and Paul Waley, Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003); P. P. Karan and Kristin Stapleton, eds., The Japanese City (Kentucky: Kentucky University Press, 1998); André Sorensen, The Making of Urban Japan: Cities and Planning from Edo to the Twenty-first Century (London: Nissan Institute/ Routledge Japan Studies Series, 2002); André Sorensen and Carolin Funck, Living Cities in Japan: Citizens' Movements, Machizukuri and Local Environments (London: Nissan Institute Routledge Japanese Studies Series, 2007).
15.
Theodore Bestor , Neighborhood Tokyo (Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1989 ), 1.
16.
Note that community members are expected to participate in and/or pay for the organization of festivals. On festivals, see, for example, Michael Ashkenazi, "Cultural Tensions as Factors in the Structure of a Festival Parade ," Asian Folklore Studies46, no. 1 (1987); Hiroko Kumagai, Machi: The Story of Two Neighborhoods (Japan: Siglo, 1996); Elizabeth Moriarty, "The Communitarian Aspect of Shinto Matsuri," Asian Folklore Studies31, no. 2 (1972); A.W. Sadler, "Carrying the Mikoshi: Further Field Notes on the Shrine Festival in Modern Tokyo," Asian Folklore Studies31, no. 1 (1970); A.W. Sadler, "Folkdance and Fairgrounds: More Notes on Neighborhood Festivals in Modern Tokyo," Asian Folklore Studies34, no. 1 (1975); A.W. Sadler, "The Form and Meaning of the Festival," Asian Folklore Studies28, no. 1 (1969).
17.
See also the criteria of sustainability developed by Sorensen and Funck, Living Cities in Japan.
18.
For an examination of Japanese terms meaning neighborhood, see also Ishida Yorifusa, "Japanese Equivalents for French `Quartier' in Professional and Popular Languages," Kogakuin Daigaku Kenkyûjohô no. 81 (October 1996).
19.
There are other words used to describe sections of a town: chiku (district) and kuiki (district), for example. The neighborhood may be described as kinjô (vicinity) or chônai (neighborhood) or with the imported word community written in katakana komyûniti to denote a social space without exact boundaries. Another word, kaiwai (neighborhood, vicinity) describes a small, active area or space distinguished from surrounding areas by its individuality and identity. Ibid., 214. See also Carola Hein and Ishida Yorifusa, "Machi and toshi-Cities' Divisions in Japan" (paper presented at the City Words, Paris, 1997); Yorifusa Ishida, "Changing Urban Divisions and Their Characteristics in Tokyo," in Les divisions de la ville, ed. Christian Topalov (Paris: Editions UNESCO, 2002). On yamanote areas, see also Philippe Pelletier, "Les Villes Hautes," in La mâitrise de la ville. Urbanité française, urbanité nippone, ed. Augustin Berque ( Paris: Édition de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1994).
20.
See also Yazaki, Social Change and the City in Japan, 155.
21.
This organization may have developed in medieval Kyoto based on the needs of merchants and artisans; it may also have emerged independently in commercial districts of early modern cities, particularly in castle cities like Edo and its major predecessor as a castle town, Osaka. See also Tamai Tetsuo, Edo, ushinawareta toshikûkan wo yomu (Tokyo: Heibonsha , 1986).
22.
Hidenobu Jinnai, Tokyo: A Spatial Anthropology ( Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
23.
Sorensen, The Making of Urban Japan, 18.
24.
Osaka had a large commoner population and enjoyed greater self-governance than other cities; still, the central government carefully ensured its authority. See James L. McClain and Osamu Wakita, eds., Osaka: The Merchant's Capital of Early Modern Japan (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999); Sorensen, The Making of Urban Japan, 21. Sorensen has published a map highlighting the structure of Edo in 1859 based on an original map by Okata Junichiro drawn in 1981 using the Bungan Edo Oezu published by Subaraya Mohei Publishers in 1859 (Ansei 6); see Sorensen, The Making of Urban Japan, 26.
25.
Iyori Tsutomu , "Tradition et avenir de l'expression de la nature dans la ville de Kyoto. Mesure de l'espace et symbolisme de la nature," in La maîtrise de la ville. Urbanité française, urbanité nippone, ed. Augustin Berque (Paris: Édition de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1994), 84
26.
Berque, " La città giapponese"; Bestor, Neighborhood Tokyo, 8-9.
27.
For a description of the Fujiwara capital, Heijôkyô (later Nara), and its construction partly on the model of Chinese capitals, see Yazaki, Social Change and the City in Japan, 31-36.
28.
Ibid., 111-12.
29.
Christoph Brumann , "Whose Kyoto? Competing Models of Local Autonomy and the Townscape in the Old Imperial Capital," in Cities, Autonomy and Decentralization in Japan, ed. Carola Hein and Philippe Pelletier (London: Routledge, 2006 ).
30.
Yoshihiko Nawata , "Chônaikai in the Citizen-participation in Japan " (Presentation at the EAJS meeting in Budapest , 1997); Yoshihiko Nawata, "Stadtteilvertretungen und Dezentralisierung der Verwaltungsfunktion in Japan," in Lokale Demokratie auf dem Prüfstand, ed. Michael Glotz-Richter, Thomas Krämer-Badoni , and Werner Petrowsky ( Bremen: Edition Temmen, 1994).
31.
André Sorensen , "Changing Governance of Shared Spaces: Machizukuri as Institutional Innovation," in Living Cities in Japan: Citizens' Movements, Machizukuri and Local Environments, ed. André Sorensen and Carolin Funck (London: Routledge, 2007 ). For an overview of urban administration in Japan, see also Sorensen, The Making of Urban Japan, 18-22.
32.
I wish to thank André Sorensen and Paul Waley for their reading of a draft of this article and for their comments on machizukuri in particular.
33.
See André Sorensen for an analysis of machizukuri as the governance of shared spaces: Sorensen, "Changing Governance of Shared Spaces." The Japanese planner and urban historian Watanabe Shun'ichi states that machi underscores the viewpoint of local residents. He defines machi as a small area, its physical space, or its social system. As Watanabe also points out, to highlight the specific, physical, or social meaning of the term, authors often use different Chinese characters for the same word, thus machi (meaning town) is more concerned with the nonphysical, and machi (meaning street) with the physical meaning of the term, whereas machi (written in hiragana) implies both meanings. See Watanabe Shun'ichi, "Toshi keikaku vs machizukuri. Emerging paradigm of civil society in Japan, 1950-1980 ," in Living Cities in Japan: Citizen's movements, machizukuri and local environments, ed. André Sorensen and Carolin Funck ( London: Routledge, 2007). For an analysis of the term, history, and practice of machizukuri, see also Neil Evans, "Machi-zukuri as a New Paradigm in Japanese Urban Planning: Reality or Myth?" Japan Forum14, no. 3 (2002); Carola Hein, "Toshikeikaku and Machizukuri in Japanese Urban Planning-The Reconstruction of Inner City Neighborhoods in Kobe," Japanstudien13 (2001); Carola Hein and Philippe Pelletier, Cities, Autonomy and Decentralization in Japan (London: Routledge, 2006); Uta Hohn, Stadtplanung in Japan: Geschichte-Recht-Praxis-Theorie [City Planning in Japan: History-Law-Praxis- Theory] ( Dortmund: Dortmunder Vertrieb für Bau-und Planungsliteratur , 2000); Sorensen and Funck , Living Cities in Japan; Silke Vogt, Neue Wege der Stadtplanung in Japan, Partizipationsansätze auf der Mikroebene, dargestellt anhand ausgewählter Machizukuri-Projekte in Tôkyô [New Methods of Urban Planning in Japan: Participatory Approaches on the Micro-level in Selected Machizukuri Projects in Tokyo] (Munich: Iudicium, 2001 ); Watanabe Shun'ichi, "Machizukuri in Japan: A Historical Perspective in Participatory Community-Building Initiatives," in Cities, Autonomy and Decentralization in Japan, ed. Carola Hein and Philippe Pelletier (London: Routledge, 2006 ); Watanabe Shun'ichi, Shimin sanka no machizukuri [Community Building with Citizen Participation] (Kyoto: Gakukeishuppansha, 1999); Watanabe J. Shun'ichi et al., " Yôgo `machizukuri' ni kansuru bunkenteki kenkyu 1945-1959" [Bibliographical Survey on the Word "Machizukuri" 1945-1959], Papers on City Planning no. 32 (1997).
34.
Different ways of reading a Chinese character reveal further variations in meaning. Read as chô , machi can be a classifier for a town, distinguishing it in legal terms from other forms of municipal government often summarized as shichôsonku ( ) or city, town, village, and ward (in Tokyo), as well as from the territorial entities todôfuken ( ), the metropolis of Tokyo, the political entity of Hokkaidô, and the urban prefectures like Osaka and Kyoto. The identifiers are added in official documents as well as colloquially onto the locale's name: Fukaura-machi (Aomori Prefecture) or Nasu-machi (Tochigi).
35.
On the urban history of Japan, see, for example, David Kornhauser, Urban Japan: Its Foundations and Growth (London: Longman, 1976); Sorensen, The Making of Urban Japan; Paul Wheatley and Thomas See, From Court to Capital: A Tentative Interpretation of the Origins of the Japanese Urban Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Yazaki, Social Change and the City in Japan.
36.
Masaru Mabuchi , Municipal Amalgamation in Japan ( The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank, 2001), siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/wbi37175.pdf . On the Great Heisei Amalgamation (Heisei Daigappei), see also Anthony Rausch, "The Heisei Dai Gappei: A Case Study for Understanding the Municipal Mergers of the Heisei Era," Japan Forum18, no. 1 (2006).
37.
Currently, cities have to have more than 50,000 inhabitants to be recognized by the Prefectural government as cities (when the Municipal Government Act was promulgated in 1888 the number was 25,000). Some cities are still smaller than 50,000 today. For example, as coal mining activity decreased, Utashinai in Hokkaidô saw a rapid decline in population during the past five decades from 46,000 in 1948 to 5,042 inhabitants in 2007 (http://www.city. utashinai.hokkaido.jp/, last accessed December 13, 2007). Meanwhile, some towns have population numbers that almost qualify them as cities. For example, Otofuke, Hokkaidô, claims 44,206 inhabitants (http://www.town.otofuke. hokkaido.jp/index2.html, last accessed December 13, 2007). At times, the development of towns into cities is visible in names such as Haramachi-shi in Fukushima, Tokamachi-shi in Niigata, or Omachi-shi in Nagano, which combine terms for both town and city. Check also Andrew. J. Jacobs, "Federations of Municipalities: A Practical Alternative to Local Government Consolidation in Japan," Governance17, no. 2 (2004).
38.
The overall number of Japanese municipalities today is much lower than in the European Union, with close to 90,000 municipalities, most of which are in France (some 36,000) and Germany (approximately 12,500) as of 2007. On the number of communes in Europe and France, see http://www.colloc.minefi.gouv.fr/colo_other-files_fina_loca/presentations/pres_comm.html (last accessed December 12, 2007), and for the number of municipalities in Germany see also Statistisches Bundesamt, Statistisches Jahrbuch ( Wiesbaden: Statistisches Bundesamt, 2007). On opposing movements of centralization and decentralization from the nineteenth to the twenty-first century, see also Ishida Yorifusa, "Local Initiatives and the Decentralization of Planning Power in Japan," in Cities, Autonomy, and Decentralization in Japan, ed. Carola Hein and Philippe Pelletier (London: Routledge, 2006 ).
39.
Andrew. J. Jacobs, "Devolving Authority and Expanding Autonomy in Japanese Prefectures and Municipalities," Governance16, no. 4 (2003). On issues of decentralization, autonomy, and local government in Japan, see also Hein and Pelletier, Cities, Autonomy and Decentralization in Japan; Kurt Steiner, Local Government in Japan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1965).
40.
Richard Child Hill and Kuniko Fujita, "State Restructuring and Local Power in Japan," Urban Studies37, no. 4 (2000), 679.
41.
Nakabayashi Itsuki, "Concentration and Deconcentration in the Context of the Tokyo Capital Region Plan and Recent Cross-Border Networking Concepts," in Cities, Autonomy and Decentralization in Japan, ed. Carola Hein and Philippe Pelletier (London: Routledge, 2006 ).
42.
See Mochizuki Tokurô , Watanabe Taksuke, and Soshiroda Akira, "Waga-kuni ni okeru yogo `toshi' no tôjô to teichaku-katei ni kansuru kenkyû" [Research Relating to the Appearance of the Word "City" and the Process of Its Establishment] , Nihon Toshikeikaku Gakkai gakujutsu kenkyûronbun shû (1994).
43.
Conceptual and functional differences between European and Japanese cities can be seen even more clearly by comparing the ideas behind capital cities. The kanji for miyako, used to write toshi, the Japanese word for city, can be understood as meaning a capital city, but in Japan it was traditionally used only for Kyoto. Miyako did not apply to regional or specialized centers in the same way as the word capital did in Europe. A literal translation of the English word capital is shuto, or head city. While this term has been used repeatedly in recent years in the context of a possible transfer of government institutions to a new capital-city site, it is usually not applied to other forms of capital cities. Instead, regional or prefectural capitals are referred to as the "seat of prefectural government" (kenchô shôzaichi) while regional cities are called chihô toshi. These terms do not carry the same symbolic meaning as the notion of a capital city in Europe.
44.
See, for example, the electronic reference tool WorldCat, a global catalog of library collections, which reveals hundreds of titles that include the term daitoshi (www.worldcat.org).
45.
On daitoshi, see, for example, Daitoshi Chosa Tokei Kyogikai, Daitoshi kokigyo hikaku chosa (Tokyo: Daitoshi Chosa Tokei Kyogikai, 1930); Tokuji Hayakawa, Daitoshi no kotsu kikan to chika tetsudo (Tokyo: Teikokutetsudokyokai, 1926); Tokyo-shi Denki Kenkyujo, Nyuyokushi no chika tetsudo: Obei daitoshi ni okeru kosokudo tetsudo (Tokyo: Tokyo-shi Denki Kenkyujo, 1927); Tokyo-shi Denki Kenkyujo, Parishi no chika tetsudo: Obei daitoshi ni okeru kosokudo tetsudo (Tokyo: Tokyo-shi Denki Kenkyujo, 1928); Tokyoshi Denki Kenkyujo, Daiberurin no kosokudo tetsudomo keikaku: Obei daitoshi ni okeru kosokudo tetsudo (Tokyo: Tokyoshi Denki Kenkyujo , 1926); Ichitaro Ogawa, Daitoshi ( Osaka: Shinin Soshokan Kokai, 1923 ); Fukutaro Okui, Gendai daitoshiron ( Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 1940); Tokyo Shisei Chosakai, Noson kyodo kumiai to daitoshi chuo oroshiuri shijo ( Tokyo: Tokyo-shisei Chosakai, 1928 ); Tokyo-shi, Gaikoku daitoshi sozei seido. 002 (Tokyo: Tokyo-shi, 1936); Tokyo-shi, Gaikoku ni okeru daitoshi seido. 4 (Tokyo: Tokyo-shibun shoka, 1932); Tokyo-shi, Kokuto oyobi daitoshi sei (Tokyo: Tokyo-shi, 1924).
46.
Hein and Ishida, "Machi and toshi."
47.
Watanabe Shun'ichi , Toshikeikaku no tanjo: kokusai hikaku kara mita Nihon kindai toshi keikaku [The Birth of Urban Planning: Japan's Urban Planning in International Comparison] (Tokyo: Kashiwa Shobo, 1993).
48.
On the planning tools used to transform Japanese cities and on specific examples from Tokyo, see also see also Carola Hein, "Shaping Tokyo: Land Development and Planning Practice in the Early Modern Japanese Metropolis " Journal of Urban History, forthcoming.
49.
On the import of foreign planning ideas, see also Carola Hein, "The Transformation of Planning Ideas in Japan and Its Colonies," in Urbanism-Imported or Exported? Foreign Plans and Native Aspirations, ed. Joe Nasr and Mercedes Volait (Chichester: Wiley, 2003 ); Hein and Ishida, "Japanische Stadtplanung."
50.
See also Ishizuka Hiromichi and Ishida Yorifusa, eds., Tokyo: Urban Growth and Planning 1868-1988 (Tokyo: Center for Urban Studies, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1988).
51.
For leading theories on garden cities, see Ebenezer Howard et al., To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (London: Routledge, [1898] 2003); Ebenezer Howard and Frederic James Osborn, Garden Cities of To-morrow (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, [1902] 1965). On a Japanese garden city, see also Watanabe Shun'ichi, "Garden City Japanese Style: The Case of Den-en Toshi Company Ltd., 1918-28," in Shaping an Urban World, Planning in the 20th Century, ed. Gordon E. Cherry (London: Mansell , 1980).
52.
See Nakabayashi, "Concentration and Deconcentration," 55.
53.
On the deconcentration of Tokyo, see also Ishida Yorifusa, Nihon kindai toshi keikaku no hyakunen [A Hundred Years of Japanese Urban Planning] (Tokyo: Jichitai-kenkyûsha, 1987); Nakabayashi, "Concentration and Deconcentration."
54.
On Ishikawa, see Shoji Sumie, "The Life of Hideaki Ishikawa," Toshikeikaku/City Planning Review, special issue, no. 182 (1993).
55.
Feder had been an early member of the Nazi party. He was Reich's commissioner of settlement before being pushed out in 1934 and appointed at the Technical University of Berlin to a chair in urban and regional planning. See also Tilman A. Schenk and Ray Bromley, "Mass-Producing Traditional Small Cities: Gottfried Feder's Vision for a Greater Nazi Germany ," Journal of Planning History2, no. 2 (2003).
56.
"Die Ortsgruppe als Siedlungszelle"; see also Werner Durth and Niels Gutschow, Träume in Trümmern, 2 vols. (Braunschweig, Wiesbaden: Vieweg, 1988). On greenbelt cities, see Frederic J. Osborn, Green-Belt Cities (London: Evelyn, Adams & Mackay, [1946] 1969).
57.
See Walter Christaller , Die zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland, Darmstadt (Darmstadt: Jena, [ 1933] 1969). Japanese articles referring to Christaller appear in the 1930s; to my knowledge, the first full translation of the book was published in 1969: Walter Christaller and Ezawa Joji, Toshi no ritchi to hatten (Tokyo: Taimeido, 1969).
58.
Ishikawa Hideaki, Sensoo to toshi (Tokyo: Nihon Denpo Tsushinsha Shuppanbu, 1942); Ishikawa Hideaki, Toshikeikaku oyobi kokudokeikaku: sono koso to gijutsu (Tokyo: Kogyotosho, 1941).
59.
See Nakabayashi, " Concentration and Deconcentration," 60; and Ishikawa Hideaki, "Toshi fukko no genri to jissai" [Principles and Reality of Urban Reconstruction], in Ishikawa Hideaki toshi keikaku ron shû [Papers on City Planning by Ishikawa Hideaki], ed. City Planning Institute of Japan (Tokyo: Shôkokusha, [1946] 1993), 596. See also Hideaki Ishikawa, (Shintei) Toshikeikaku oyobi kokudokeikaku (Tokyo: Sangyotosho, 1963), 41.
60.
Christaller's ideas are still relevant today even though they need revision, as Peter Hall's analysis shows: Peter Hall, "Christaller for a Global Age: Redrawing the Urban Hierarchy," in Stadt und Region: Dynamik von Lebenswelten, Tagungsbericht und wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, 53. Deutscher Geographentag Leipzig, 29. September bis 5. Oktober 2001, ed. Alois Mayr , Manfred Meurer, and Joachim Vogt (Leipzig: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Geographie, 2002).
61.
On Nishiyama, see also Carola Hein, "Nishiyama Uzô and the Spread of Western Concepts in Japan," 10+1 no. 20 (2000); Andrea Yuri Flores Urushima, " Genesis and Culmination of Uzô Nishiyama's Proposal of a `Model Core of a Future City' for the Expo 70 Site (1960-73)," Planning Perspectives22, no. 4 ( 2007). Nishiyama has published extensively, but there are still few publications examining his life and work.
62.
Nishiyama Uzô , "Kokudo kôsei no ichi shiron (first Published as Atarashiki Kokudô kensetsu, in: Shinkenchiku 6/1946)," in Chiiki kûkan ron [Reflections on Urban, Regional and National Space], ed. Uzô Nishiyama (Tokyo: Keiso shobo, [1946] 1968).
63.
Thomas Adams , The Design of Residential Areas ( Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1934); Thomas Adams and Kamei Kojiro, Jutakuchi no shintaisei genri to keikaku (Tokyo: Nihon Denken Kabushiki Kaisha Shuppanbu, 1944); James Dahir, The Neighborhood Unit Plan: Its Spread and Acceptance: A Selected Bibliography with Interpretative Comments (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1947); Perry, "The Neighborhood Unit."
64.
On Takayama Eika's work in Datong, see Hein, "The Transformation of Planning Ideas."
65.
Gottfried Feder , Die neue Stadt, Versuch der Begründung einer neuen Stadtplanungskunst aus der sozialen Struktur der Bevölkerung (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1939), 440-41.
66.
A correct and independent reading of Feder is given in Toshikeikaku kyôiku kenkyû kai, Toshikeikakukyôkasho (Tokyo: Shokokusha , 1987, 1995, 1996). For the most common analysis of Feder's plan, see Akiyama Masayuki, Toshikeikaku (Tokyo: Riko tosho, 1980, 1985, 1993); Higasa Tadashi, Toshikeikaku (Tokyo: Kyôritsushuppan, 1977, 1985, 1986, 1992, 1993, 1996); Ishikawa Hideaki, (Shintei) Toshikeikaku oyobi kokudokeikaku (Tokyo: Sangyotosho , 1951); Katsura Hisao, Adachi Kazuo, and Zaino Hiroshi, Toshikeikaku (Tokyo: Morikita Shuppan, 1975, 1988); Kôjiro Takei, Toshikeikaku (Tokyo: Kyôritsushuppan, 1960, 1958).
67.
Akiyama, Toshikeikaku (1993 version), 38.
68.
While it is not incorrect to place Feder in this context, no English- or German-language publication would give his work such a prominent place. In the postwar period, German practitioners did not refer to Feder, because of his political convictions. On Feder and his urban planning as technocratic or politically motivated, see also Dirk Schubert, "Gottfried Feder und sein Beitrag zur Stadtplanungstheorie-Technokratische Richtwertplanung oder nationalsozialistische Stadtplanungsideologie?" Die alte Stadt no. 13 (1986). In English-language publications, scholars do not see it as a noteworthy planning book in its own right and refer to it in a footnote (Mumford), or as part of the National Socialist ideology (Taylor, Hall); see Peter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century , updated ed. (Oxford: Blackwell , 1996), 198; Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects (New York: Harcourt, Brace + World, 1961), 594; Robert R. Taylor, The Word in Stone: The Role of Architecture in the National Socialist Ideology (Berkeley: University of California , 1974).
Nishiyama Uzô , Chiiki kûkan ron [Reflections on Urban, Regional and National Space] (Tokyo: Keiso shobo, 1968).
71.
He was not the only one doing so. The architect Kishida Hideto published a book on Nazi architecture but prefaced it with discussion of modernist architecture. See Kishida Hideto, Nachisu doitsu no kenchiku [The Architecture of Nazi Germany] ( Tokyo: Sagamishobo, 1943).
72.
Feder himself insisted that the data given for an ideal new town can be used for the creation of new towns as well as for the creation of neighborhoods inside existing cities, for renewal as much as for rebuilding. This part of his writing was not clear to all his Japanese commentators, as becomes obvious in an article written in 1943 by Ishikawa, who criticized the ideas of Feder for not being applicable to existing cities and instead developed his own concept of dividing cities. Ishikawa confused the first and last name and speaks of "Professor Gottfried." With regard to the theory, he spoke of the day/week/month center. Ishikawa Hideaki, "100 nengo no toshi" [The City in 100 Years], in toshi no seitai (Shunjûsha, 1943). See also Feder, Die neue Stadt.
73.
Itô Goro , "Nachisu doitsu no toshikeikaku" [City Planning in Nazi-Germany], part 1, Shinkenchiku no. 11 (1942); Itô Goro, "Nachisu doitsu no toshikeikaku" [City Planning in Nazi-Germany], part 2, Shinkenchiku1 (1943).
74.
Ishikawa, " 100 nengo no toshi"; Nishiyama Uzô , "Seikatsu no kôzô to seikatsu kichi" [The Structure of Life Units and the Base of Life], Kenchikugaku kenkyû no. 110/111 (1942 ) (later included in his book Chiikikûkanron, Tokyo, Keisô shobô, 1968).
75.
Nishiyama probably understood German well enough to make his own translation for his analysis. The terms he uses when writing about "The New Town" differ from those given by the translator of the Chamber of Industry and Commerce. They are more precise and better anchored in the Japanese planning context. For example, Die neue Stadt in the version of the Chamber of Industry and Commerce translates as "Shintoshi no kensetsu." Gottfried Feder and Fritz Rechenberg, "Shintoshi no kensetsu," Tôkyô Shôkô kaigisho 5 (1942). Nishiyama uses "Atarashiki toshi," which is a term that characterizes new city concepts. Furthermore, Feder's central argument, which concerns "organic" town planning, is referred to by Nishiyama as "yûkiteki" (organic, a term used also by another famous urban planner, Ikeda Hiroshi, earlier, whereas the other translator uses "soshikiteki," which has more the meaning of organizational). The hierarchy of centers established by Feder is explained by Nishiyama with daily/weekly/monthly centers within the city, using a term that well explains Feder's ideas but that is rarely used by the author, who uses Kern (nucleus). In fact, it appears primarily in the context of the illustration Nishiyama chooses to accompany his article. The version by the Chamber of Industry and Commerce uses the direct translation "kaku" for nucleus.
76.
Ishikawa, Toshikeikaku oyobi kokudokeikaku (1941, 1951, 1963)-1941 edition: Siedlung as characterization for the Feder plan on p. 41 and as residential district referring to Siedlung "Leipsic-Lössnig" on p. 482. On the German concept of Siedlung, see also Carola Hein, "Siedlung," in Trésor des mots de la ville, ed. Christian Topalov et al. (Paris: CNRS-Editions & Editions de la MSH, forthcoming).
77.
See also Nishiyama Uzô , Toshikeikaku to machizukuri [Urban Planning and Community Design], vol. 2 (Tôkyô: Chôbunsha, 1971).
78.
Private investors, including major players such as the Mitsubishi company, refashioned neighborhoods according to their own premises; some areas changed through the local use of planning tools that had partial roots in Japanese culture and could be applied on a small scale, notably land readjustment, characterized by a reduction in lot sizes to create public land and to widen and straighten out streets, plots, and blocks. Still others developed according to the combined interests and needs of individual landowners. See also Carola Hein, "ShapingTokyo: Land Development and Planning Practice in the Early Modern Japanese Metropolis" Journal of Urban History, forthcoming.
79.
In keeping with Japanese custom, Japanese proper names appear in this article with the surname followed by the given, first name. An exception is made, when Japanese authors publish in a foreign language or the reference uses the American/European system.
