The authors report the development of a racial/ethnicity identity (REI) measure for African American adolescents. The Adolescent Survey of Black Life (ASBL) was administered to two samples, comprising 286 and 60 respondents, respectively. Three factors were identified: pro-Black (7 items), anti-White (4 items), and racism awareness (5 items). Scores on the pro-Black factor were significantly related to anti-drug attitudes, and in Sample 1, they were also significantly related to positive school attitudes and behaviors, problem behaviors (negatively), and self-esteem. Anti-White scores in Sample 2 were significantly related, in the negative direction, with positive school attitudes and behaviors and prosocial activities, as well as positively related with drug use. Recognition of racism was significantly associated with positive school attitudes, problem behaviors, and drug use in Sample 1. Findings should be tempered by the cross-sectional design, small sample size, and the inconsistency and magnitude of the observed correlations. Initial psychometric data suggest construct validity of the ASBL, and further development of the instrument may be warranted.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Akbar, N.
(1984). Afrocentric social sciences for human liberation. Journal of Black Studies, 14(4), 395-414.
2.
Aries, E.
, & Moorehead, K. (1989). The importance of ethnicity in the development of identity of Black adolescents. Psychological Reports, 65(1), 75-82.
3.
Arroyo, C. G.
, & Zigler, E. (1995). Racial identity, academic achievement, and the psychological well-being of economically disadvantaged adolescents. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 903-914.
4.
Bagley, C. A.
, & Copeland, E. J. (1994). African and African American graduate students’racial identity and personal problem-solving strategies. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73(2), 167-171.
5.
Baldwin, J.
(1984). African self-consciousness and the mental health of African-Americans. Journal of Black Studies, 15(2), 177-194.
6.
Baldwin, J.
, & Bell, Y. (1985). The African self-consciousness scale, An Afrocentric personality questionnaire. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 9(2), 61-68.
7.
Baldwin, J.
, Duncan, J., & Bell, Y. (1987). Assessment of African self-consciousness among Black students from two college environments. Journal of Black Psychology, 13(2), 27-41.
8.
Belgrave, F. Z.
, Cherry, V. R., Cunningham, D., Walwyn, S., Letkala-Rennert, K., & Phillips, F. (1994). The influence of Afrocentric values, self-esteem, and Black identity on drug attitudes among African American fifth graders: A preliminary study. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(2), 143-156.
9.
Biafora, F. A.
, Taylor, D. L., Warheit, G. J., Zimmerman, R. S., & Vega, W. S. (1993). Cultural mistrust and racial awareness among ethnically diverse Black adolescent boys. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(3), 266-281.
10.
Bollen, K.
, & Lennox, R. (1991). Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 110(2), 305-314.
11.
Brookins, C. C.
(1994). The relationship between Afrocentric values and racial identity attitudes: Validation of the Belief Systems Analysis Scale on African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(2), 128-142.
12.
Brookins, C. C.
, Anyabwile, T. M., & Nacoste, R. (1996). Exploring the links between racial identity attitudes and psychological feelings of closeness in African American college students. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(3), 243-264.
13.
Burlew, A. K.
, & Smith, L. R. (1991). Measures of racial identity: An overview and a proposed framework. Journal of Black Psychology, 17(2), 53-71.
14.
Cross, W.
(1991). Shades of Black, diversity in African American identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
15.
Cross, W.
, Parham, T., & Helms, J. (1985). Nigrescence revisited: Theory and research. In R. Jones (Ed.), Advances in Black psychology, pp. 81-98. New York: Harper & Row.
16.
Cross, W.
, Parham, T., & Helms, J. (1991). The stages of Black identity development, Nigrescence models. In R. Jones (Ed.), Black psychology (3rd ed., pp. 319-338). Berkeley, CA: Cobb & Henry.
17.
Damond, M. E.
, Breuer, N. L., & Pharr, A. E. (1993). The evaluation of setting and a culturally specific HIV/AIDS curriculum: HIV/AIDS knowledge and behavioral intent of African American adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(2), 169-189.
18.
Floyd, F. J.
(1995). Factors analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 286-299.
19.
Foster, P. M.
, Phillips, F., Belgrave, F. Z., Randolph, S. M., & Braithwaite, N. (1993). An Afrocentric model for AIDS education, prevention, and psychological services within the African American community. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(2), 123-141.
20.
Gary, L.
, & Berry, G. (1985). Predicting attitudes toward substance use in a Black community: Implications for prevention. Community Mental Health Journal, 21(1), 42-51.
21.
Greene, L.
, Smith, M., & Peters, S. (1995). “I have a future” comprehensive adolescent health promotion: Cultural considerations in program implementation and design. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 6(2), 267-281.
22.
Harris, N.
(1992). A philosophical basis for an Afrocentric orientation. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 6(3), 154-159.
23.
Helms, J. E.
(1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
24.
Helms, J. E.
, & Parham, T. A. (1990). Black racial identity attitudes scales. New York: Greenwood.
25.
Herd, D.
, & Grube, J. (1996). Black identity and drinking in the U.S.: A national study. Addiction, 91(6), 845-857.
26.
Kambon, K. K.
, & Hopkins, R. (1993). An African-centered analysis of Penn et al.’s critique of the own-race preference assumption underlying Afrocentric models of personality. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(3), 342-349.
27.
Klonoff, E.
, & Landrine, H. (1997). Distrust of Whites, acculturation, and AIDS knowledge among African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 23(1), 50-57.
28.
Kuhlman, T. L.
(1979). A validation study of the draw-a-person as a measure of racial identity acceptance. Journal of Personality Assessment, 43(5), 457-458.
29.
Lacey, L. P.
, Manfedi, C., Balch, G., Warnecke, R. B., Allen, K., & Edwards, C. (1993). Social support in smoking cessation among Black women in Chicago public housing. Public Health Reports, 108(3), 387-394.
30.
Landrine, H.
, & Klonoff, E. A. (1994). The African American Acculturation Scale: Development, reliability, and validity. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(2), 104-127.
31.
Landrine, H.
, & Klonoff, E. A. (1995). The African American Acculturation Scale II: Crossvalidation and short form. Journal of Black Psychology, 21(2), 124-152.
32.
Landrine, H.
, & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22(2), 144-168.
33.
Lemon, R. L.
, & Waehler, C. A. (1996). A test of stability and construct validity of the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale, Form B (RIAS-B) and the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (WRIAS). Measurement & Evaluation in Counseling & Development, 29(2), 77-85.
34.
Marshall, S.
(1995). Ethnic socialization of African American children: Implications for parenting, identity development, and academic achievement. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 24(4), 377-396.
35.
McNeilly, M. D.
, Anderson, N. B., Armstead, C. A., Clark, R., Corbett, M., Robinson, E. L., Pieper, C. F., & Lepisto, E. M. (1996). The perceived racism scale: a multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans. Ethnicity & Disease, 6(1-2), 154-166.
36.
Millones, J.
(1980). Construction of a Black consciousness measure, Psychotherapeutic implications. Psychotherapy, Theory, Research and Practice, 17(2), 175-182.
37.
Montgomery, D.
, Fine, M., & James-Myers, L. (1990). The development and validation of an instrument to assess an optimal Afrocentric world view. The Journal of Black Psychology, 17(1), 37-54.
38.
Morgan, G.
(1991). Afrocentricity in social science. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 15(4), 197-206.
39.
Munford, M. B.
(1994). Relationship of gender, self-esteem, social class, and racial identity to depression in Blacks. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(2), 157-174.
40.
Oyserman, D.
, Gant, L., & Ager, J. (1995). A socially contextualized model of African American identity: Possible selves and school persistence. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69(6), 1216-1232.
41.
Parham, T. A.
, & Helms, J. (1985a). Attitudes of racial identity and self-esteem of Black students: An exploratory investigation. Journal of College Student Personnel, 26, 143-147.
42.
Parham, T. A.
, & Helms, J. (1985b). Relation of racial identity attitudes to self-actualization and affective states of Black students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(3), 431-440.
43.
Parham, T. A.
, & Williams, P. T. (1993). The relationship of demographic and background factors to racial identity attitudes. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(1), 7-24.
44.
Penn, M. L.
, Gaines, S. O., & Phillips, L. (1993). On the desirability of own-group preference. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(3), 303-321.
45.
Phinney, J. S.
(1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156-176.
46.
Phinney, J. S.
, & Chavira, V. (1992). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: An exploratory longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 15(3), 271-281.
47.
Piers, E.
(1984). Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
48.
Plummer, D. L.
(1995). Patterns of racial identity development of African American adolescent males and females. Journal of Black Psychology, 21(2), 168-180.
49.
Randolph, S. M.
, & Banks, H. D. (1993). Making a way out of no way: The promise of Afrocentric approaches to HIV prevention. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(2), 204-214.
50.
Resnicow, K.
, & Ross-Gaddy, D. (1997). Development of a Racial Identity Questionnaire for African American adults. Journal of Black Studies, 23(2), 239-254.
51.
Resnicow, K.
, Ross-Gaddy, D., & Vaughan, R. D. (1995). Structure of problem and positive behaviors in African American youths. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 63(4), 594-603.
52.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J.
(1990). Adolescents’ reference-group choices, self-esteem, and adjustment. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 59(5), 1075-1081.
53.
Schiele, J. H.
(1996). Afrocentricity: An emerging paradigm in social work practice. Social Work, 41(3), 284-294.
54.
Scribner, R.
, Hohn, A., & Dwyer, J. (1995). Blood pressure and self-concept among African-American adolescents. Journal of the National Medical Association, 87(6), 417-422.
55.
Stevenson, H. C.
(1994). Validation of the Scale of Racial Socialization for African American adolescents: Steps toward multidimensionality. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(4), 445-468.
56.
Stevenson, H. C.
(1995). Relationship of adolescent perceptions of racial socialization to racial identity. Journal of Black Psychology, 21(1), 49-70.
57.
Stokes, J. E.
, Murray, C. B., Peacock, M. J., & Kaiser, R. T. (1994). Assessing the reliability, factor structure, and validity of the African Self-Consciousness Scale in a general population of African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(1), 62-74.
58.
Terrell, F.
, & Terrell, S. L. (1981). An inventory to measure cultural mistrust among Blacks. Western Journal of Black Studies, 5(3), 180-184.
59.
Terrell, F.
, Terrell, S. L., & Taylor, J. (1988). The self-concept level of Black adolescents with and without African names. Psychology in the Schools, 25(1), 65-70.
60.
Thompson, V. S.
(1991). A multidimensional approach to the assessment of African American racial identification. Western Journal of Black Studies, 15(3), 154-158.
61.
Thompson, V. S.
(1992). A multifaceted approach to the conceptualization of African American identification. Journal of Black Studies, 23(1), 75-85.
62.
Ward, J. V.
(1995). Cultivating a morality of care in African American adolescents: A culturebased model of violence prevention. Harvard Educational Review, 65(2), 175-188.
63.
Whaley, A.
(1993). Self-esteem, cultural identity, and psychosocial adjustment in African American children. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(4), 406-422.
