Phinney's (1992) Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) was administered to 118 African American children between the ages of 8 and 12 years who lived in an impoverished inner-city neighborhood. This study examined the scale's reliability in measuring feelings of ethnic affirmation and belonging, ethnic behaviors, and ethnic knowledge in a sample of urban children. Results of the reliability analyses were mixed, and indicated that the constructs of ethnic behavior and identity achievement were less stable in this population. Potential implications of differences in cognitive development and social experiences between younger children and adolescents as well as contextualfactors such as socioeconomic status are considered in the discussion of the results.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Aboud, F. E.
(1987). The development of ethnic self-identification. In J. S. Phinney & M. J. Rotheram (Eds.), Children ethnic socialization (pp. 32-55). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2.
Aboud, F. E.
, & Doyle, A. (1995). The development of in-group pride in Black Canadians. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 243-254.
3.
Akbar, N.
(1989). Nigrescence and identity: Some limitations. The Counseling Psychologist, 17, 253-257.
4.
Alejandro-Wright, M. N. (1980). The child's development of the concept of race (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1980). Dissertation Abstracts International, 41-07B, 2787.
5.
Alejandro-Wright, M. N.
(1985). The child's conception of racial classification: A socio-cognitive model. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: Social and affective development of Black children (185-200). New York: Erlbaum.
6.
Atkinson, D. R.
, Morten, G., & Sue, D. W. (Eds.). (1993). Counseling American minorities: A cross-cultural perspective (4th ed.). Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.
7.
Baldwin, J.
(1985). African self-consciousness and mental health of African Americans. Journal of Black Studies, 15, 177-194.
8.
Bemal, M. E.
(1994, August). Development and socialization of ethnic identity in Mexican American children. Paper presented at annual meeting for the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.
9.
Bemal, M. E.
, Knight, G. P., Garza, C. A., Ocampo, K. A., & Cota, M. K. (1990). The development of ethnic identity in Mexican-American children. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 12, 3-24.
10.
Bernal, M. E.
, Knight, G. P., Ocampo, K. A., Garza, C. A., & Cota, M. K. (1993). Development of Mexican American identity. In M. E. Bernal & G. P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities (pp. 31-46). Albany: State University of New York Press.
11.
Cross, W. E. Jr.
(1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation. Black World, 20(9), 13-27.
12.
Cross, W. E. Jr.
(1987). A two factor theory of Black identity: Implications for the study of identity development in minority children. In J. S. Phinney & M. J. Rotherham (Eds.), Childrens ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development (117-133). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
13.
Cross, W. E. Jr.
(1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African American identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
14.
Helms, J. E.
(1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Greenwood.
15.
Jackson, B.
(1975). Black identity development. Journal of Educational Diversity, 2, 19-25.
16.
Katz, J.
(1985). The sociopolitical nature of counseling. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 615-624.
17.
Knight, G. P.
, Bernal, M. E., Garza, C. A., & Cota, M. K. (1993). A social-cognitive model of the development of ethnic identity and ethnically-based behaviors. In M. E. Bernal & G. P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities (pp. 213-234). Albany: State University of New York Press.
18.
Knight, G. P.
, Bernal, M. E., Garza, C. A., Cota, M. K., & Ocampo, K. A. (1993). Family socialization and the ethnic identity of Mexican-American children. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 99-114.
19.
Myers, L. J.
, Speight, S. L., Highlen, P. S., Cox, C. I., Reynolds, A. L., Adams, E. M., & Hanley, C. P. (1991). Identity development and worldview: Toward an optimal conceptualization. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70(1), 54-63.
20.
Parham, T. A.
(1989). Cycles of psychological nigrescence. The Counseling Psychologist, 17, 187-226.
21.
Parham, T. A.
, & Helms, J. E. (1981). Influence of Black students' racial identity attitudes on preference for counselor race. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 250-257.
22.
Phinney, J.
(1990). Ethnic identity in adolescence and adulthood: A review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499-518.
23.
Phinney, J.
(1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176.
24.
Phinney, J.
, & Rotherham, M. J. (Eds.) (1987). Children's ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
25.
Plummer, D. L.
(1995). Patterns of racial identity development of African American adolescent males and females. Journal of Black Psychology, 21, 168-180.
26.
Ruiz, A. S.
(1990). Ethnic identity: Crisis and resolution. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 18, 29-40.
27.
Semaj, L.
(1981). The development of racial classification abilities. Journal ofNegro Education, 50,41-47.
28.
Semaj, L.
(1985). Afrikanity, cognition and extended self-identity. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: Social and affective development of Black children (173-184). New York: Erlbaum.
29.
Spencer, M. B.
(1982). Personal and group identity of Black children: An alternative synthesis. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 106, 59-84.
30.
Spencer, M. B.
(1984). Black children's race awareness, racial attitudes, and self concept: A reinterpretation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25, 433-441.
31.
Spencer, M. B.
(1985). Cultural cognition and social cognition as identity factors in black children's personal-social growth. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookings, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of black children (215-230). Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.
32.
Spencer, M. B.
(1987). Black children's ethnic identity formation: Risk and resilience of caste like minorities. In J. S. Phinney & M. J. Rotherham (Eds.), Children's ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
33.
Spencer, M. B.
, & Markstrom-Adams, C. (1990). Identity processes among social and ethnic minority children in America. Child Development, 61, 290-310.
34.
Stevenson, H. C. Jr.
(1995). Relationship of adolescent perception of racial socialization to racial identity. Journal of Black Psychology, 21, 49-70.
35.
Trickett, E. J.
, Watts, R. J., & Birman, D. (Eds.). (1994). Human diversity: Perspectives on people in context. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
