Contemporary adolescent rites-of-passage interventions within the African American community are designed to positively influence the ethnic identity of African American youth through activities that provide historical and cultural information, teach intellectual and social skills, and promote values that are consistent with African American culture and community needs. Unfortunately, it is unclear how consistent these interventions are with current developmental research and theory. This article presents and describes the adolescent developmental pathways paradigm (ADPP), a rites-of-passage modelforAfrican American youth that provides a developmentalframework for ethnic identity development and integrates it into the current literature on adolescent rites of passage. Particular attention is given to the ecological context within which adolescent-focused interventions currently operate and have been shown to be effective. The implications of the ADPPfor adolescent development, community empowerment, social change, andfuture research are also discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adams, G. R.
(1985). Identity and political socialization. New Directionsfor Child Development, 30, 61-78.
2.
Adams, G.
, Fitch, J., & Shay, S. A. (1979). Toward the development of an objective measure of ego-identity status. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 8, 223-238.
3.
Allan, J.
, & Dyck, P. (1985). Transition: Childhood to adolescence. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 18, 277-286.
4.
Baldwin, J. A.
, Brown, R., & Rackley, R. (1990). Some socio-behavioral correlates of African self-consciousness in African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 17, 1-18.
5.
Barnes, E. J.
(1980). The Black community as the source of positive self-concept for Black children: A theoretical perspective. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Black psychology (2nd ed., pp. 106-130). New York: Harper & Row.
6.
Barone, C.Aguirre-Deandreis, A.
, & Trickett, E. (1991). Means-end problem-solving skills, life stress, and social support as mediators of adjustment in the normative transition to high school. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 207-226.
7.
Bird, F.
(1980). The contemporary ritual milieu. In R. B. Browne (Ed.), Rituals and ceremonies in popular culture. Bowling Green, OH: Popular Press.
8.
Blumenkrantz, D. G.
, & Gavazzi, S. M. (1993). Guiding transitional events for children and adolescents through a modem day rite of passage. Journal of Primary Prevention, 13, 199-212.
9.
Blythe, D. D.
, Simmons, R. G., & Carlton-Ford, S. (1983). The adjustment of early adolescents to school transitions. Journal of Early Adolescence, 3, 105-120.
10.
Boykin, A. W.
(1986). The triple quandary and the schooling of Afro-American children. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The school achievement of minorities: Newperspectives (pp. 57-92). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
11.
Bronfenbrenner, U.
(1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
12.
Brookins, C. C. (1984). A descriptive analysis of ten independent Black educational models. Unpublished master's thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.
13.
Brookins, C. C.
, Anyabwile, T., & Barnes-Nacoste, R. (in press). Racial identity attitudes and psychological feelings of closeness in African American college students. In J. McAdoo, H. McAdoo, & A. Harrison (Eds.), Proceedings of the thirteenth conference on empirical research on Black psychology. East Lansing: Michigan State University.
14.
Bulhan, H. A.
(1985). Frantz Fanon and the psychology of oppression. New York: Plenum.
15.
Cole, J. B.
(1970). Culture: Negro, Black and nigger. Black Scholar, 1, 40-44.
16.
Cross, W.
(1978). The Thomas and Cross models of psychological Nigrescence: A literature review. Journal of Black Psychology, 4, 13-31.
17.
Cross, W. E.
(1985). Black identity: Rediscovering the distinction between personal identity and reference group orientation. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children (pp. 155-172). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
18.
Cross, W. E.
(1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African American identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
19.
De Vos, G.
(1975). Ethnic pluralism: Conflict and accommodation. In G. De Vos & L. Romanucci-Ross (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Cultural continuities and change (pp. 5-41). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
20.
Dryfoos, J. G.
(1990). Adolescents at risk: Prevalence and prevention. New York: Oxford University Press.
21.
Dunham, R. M.
, Kidwell, J. S., & Wilson, S. M. (1986). Rites of passage at adolescence: A ritual process paradigm. Journal of Adolescent Research, 1, 139-154.
22.
Erikson, E.
(1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
23.
Erny, P.
(1973). Childhood and cosmos: The social psychology of the Black African child. New York: New Perspectives.
24.
Fairweather, G. W.
(1972). Social change: The challenge to survival. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
25.
Fasick, F. A.
(1988). Patterns of formal education in high school as rites de passage. Adolescence, 23,457-468.
26.
Fine, M.
, & Bowers, C. (1984). Racial self-identification: The effects of social history and gender. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 136-146.
27.
Garbarino, J.
(1985). Adolescent development: An ecological perspective. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
28.
Gay, G.
(1987). Ethnic identity development and Black expressiveness. In G. Gay & W. L. Baber (Eds.), Expressively Black: The cultural basis of ethnic identity (pp. 35-74). New York: Praeger.
29.
Gay, G.
, & Baber, W. L. (Eds.). (1987). Expressively Black: The cultural basis of ethnic identity. New York: Praeger.
30.
Gecas, V.
, & Mortimer, J. T. (1987). Stability and change in the self-concept from adolescence to adulthood. In T. Honess & K. Yardley (Eds.), Self and identity: Perspectives across the lifespan (pp. 265-286). London: Roudledge & Kegan Paul.
31.
Gibbs, J. T.
(1989). Black adolescents and youth: An update on an endangered species. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Black adolescents (pp. 3-28). Berkeley, CA: Cobb & Henry.
32.
Gibbs, J. T.
, Huang, L. N., & Associates (Eds.). (1989). Children of color. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
33.
Gilchrist, L. D.
, Schinke, S. P., Snow, W. H., Schilling, R. F., & Senachal, V. (1988). The transition to junior high school: Opportunities for primary prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 8, 99-108.
34.
Ginzberg, E.
, Berliner, H., & Ostow, M. (Eds.). (1988). Young people at risk: Is prevention possible?Boulder, CO: Westview.
35.
Hare, N.
, & Hare, J. (1985). Bringing the Black boy to manhood: The passage. San Francisco: Black Think Tank.
36.
Harter, S.
(1983). Developmental perspectives on the self-system. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Socialization, personality, and social development (Vol. 4, pp. 275-385). New York: John Wiley.
37.
Harter, S.
(1986). Processes underlying the construction, maintenance, and enhancement of the self-concept in children. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 3, pp. 137-181). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
38.
Harter, S.
(1990). Self and identity development. In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 352-387). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
39.
Hauser, S. T.
, & Kasendorf, E. (1983). Black and White identity formation (2nd ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger.
40.
Hawkins, J.
, & Weis, J. (1985). The social development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6, 73-97.
41.
Hill, P.
(1992). Coming of age: African American male rites-of-passage. Chicago: African American Images.
42.
Hirsch, B. J.
, & Rapkin, B. D. (1987). The transition to junior high school: A longitudinal study of self-esteem, psychological symptomology, school life, and social support. Child Development, 58, 1235-1243.
43.
Hughes, M.
, & Demo, D. H. (1989). Self-perceptions of Black Americans: Self-esteem and personal efficacy. American Journal of Sociology, 95, 132-159.
44.
Ianni, F.A.J.
(1989). The search for structure: A report on American youth today. New York: Free Press.
45.
Jeff, M.FX.
(1994). Afrocentrism and African American male youths. In R. B. Mincy (Ed.), Nurturing young Black males: Challenges to agencies, programs, and social policy (pp. 99-118). Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
46.
Jones, J. M.
(1991). Racism: A cultural analysis of the problem. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Black psychology (3rd ed., pp. 609-635). Berkeley, CA: Cobb & Henry.
47.
Kaplan, H. B.
, Martin, S. S., & Robbins, C. (1984). Pathways to adolescent drug use: Self-derogation, peer influence, weakening of social controls, and early substance use. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 25, 270-289.
48.
Keating, D. P.
(1990). Adolescent thinking. In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 54-90). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
49.
Kunjufu, J.
(1982). Countering the conspiracy to destroy Black boys. Chicago: Afro-Am.
50.
Lee, C. C.
(1987). Black manhood training: Group counseling for male Blacks in grades 7-12. Journalfor Specialists in Group Work, 12, 18-25.
51.
Lee, C. C.
(1994). Adolescent development. In R. B. Mincy (Ed.), Nurturing young Black males: Challenges to agencies, programs; and social policy (pp. 33-44). Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
52.
Lee, C. C.
, & Lindsey, C. R. (1985). Black consciousness development: A group counseling model for Black elementary school students. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 18, 277-286.
53.
Lewis, M. C.
(1988). Herstory: Black female rites of passage. Chicago: African American Images.
54.
Loevinger, J.
(1976). Ego development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
55.
Looney, J.
(1988). Ego development and Black identity. Journal of Black Psychology, 15, 41-56.
56.
Mahdi, L. C.
, Foster, S., & Little, M. (Eds.). (1987). Betwixt & between: Patterns of masculine andfeminine initiation. La Salle, IL: Open Court.
57.
Marcia, J. E.
(1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13, 419-438.
58.
Marcia, J. E.
(1981). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 197-243). New York: John Wiley.
59.
Marcia, J. E.
(1987). The identity status approach to the study of ego identity development. In T. Honess & K. Yardley (Eds.), Self and identity: Perspectives across the lifespan (pp. 161-171). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
60.
Marcia, J. E.
(1989). Identity and intervention. Journal of Adolescence, 12, 401-410.
61.
Mbiti, J. S.
(1970). African religions and philosophies. New York: Doubleday.
62.
McCombs, H. G.
(1985). Black self-concept: An individual/collective analysis. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 9, 1-18.
63.
Mincy, R. B.
(1994). Nurturing young Black males: Challenges to agencies, programs, and social policy. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
64.
Moore, M.
, Gilyard, G. A., King, K., & Warfield-Coppock, N. (1987). Transformation: A rites of passage manualfor African American girls. New York: Stars Press.
65.
Muga, D.
(1984). Academic sub-cultural theory and the problematic of ethnicity: A tentative critique. Journal of Ethnic Studies, 12, 1-51.
66.
Myers, L. J.
(1988). Understanding an Afrocentric world view: Introduction to an optimal psychology. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
67.
Nobles, W. W.
(1973). Psychological research and the Black self-concept: A critical review. Journal of Social Issues, 29, 11-31.
68.
Ogbu, J.
(1982). Socialization: Acultural ecological approach. In K. M. Borman (Ed.), The social life of children in a changing society (pp. 253-267). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
69.
Ogbu, J. U.
(1985). Acultural ecology of competence among inner-city Blacks. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children (pp. 45-66). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
70.
Oliver, W.
(1989). Black males and social problems: Prevention through Afrocentric socialization. Journal of Black Studies, 20, 15-39.
71.
Phinney, J. S.
(1989). Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34-49.
72.
Phinney, J. S.
(1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with adolescents and young adults from diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176.
73.
Quinn, W. H.
, Newfield, N. A., & Protinsky, H. O. (1985). Rites of passage in families with adolescents. Family Process, 24, 101-111.
74.
Ramseur, H. P.
(1991). Psychologically healthy Black adults. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Black psychology (3rd ed., pp. 353-378). Berkeley, CA: Cobb & Henry.
75.
Robinson, T. L.
, & Ward, J. V. (1991). "A belief in self far greater than anyone's disbelief": Cultivating resistance among African American female adolescents. Women and Therapy, 11, 87-103.
76.
Rosenberg, M.
(1986). Self-concept from middle childhood through adolescence. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 3, pp. 107-136). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
77.
Rotheram, M. J.
, & Phinney, J. S. (1987). Introduction: Definitions and perspectives in the study of children's ethnic socialization. In J. S. Phinney & M. J. Rotheram (Eds.), Children's ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development (pp. 10-28). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
78.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J.
(1989). Ethnic differences in adolescents' identity status and associated behavior problems. Journal of Adolescence, 12, 361-374.
79.
Scott, C. S.
, Arthur, D., Panizo, M. I., & Owen, R. (1989). Menarche: The Black American experience. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 10, 363-368.
80.
Seidman, E.
, & Rappaport, J. (1986). Framing the issues. In E. Seidman & J. Rappaport (Eds.), Redefining social problems (pp. 1-8). New York: Plenum.
81.
Semaj, L. T.
(1981). The Black self, identity, and models for a psychology of Black liberation. Western Journal of Black Studies, 5, 158-171.
82.
Semaj, L. T.
(1985). Afrikanity, cognition, and extended self-identity. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children (pp. 173-183). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
83.
Simpson, G. E.
, & Yinger, J. M. (1985). Racial and cultural minorities: An analysis ofprejudice and discrimination (5th ed.). New York: Plenum.
84.
Sommer, B.
(1985). Truancy in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 5, 145-160.
85.
Spencer, M. B.
(1983). Children's cultural values and parental child rearing strategies. Developmental Review, 3, 351-370.
86.
Spencer, M. B.
(1985). Cultural cognition and social cognition as identity correlates of Black children's personal-social development. In M. B. Spencer, G. K. Brookins, & W. R. Allen (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children (pp. 215-230). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
87.
Spencer, M. B.
(1987). Black children's ethnic identity formation: Risk and resilience of castelike minorities. In J. S. Phinney & M. J. Rotheram (Eds.), Children's ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development (pp. 103-116). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
88.
Spencer, M. B.
(1988). Self-concept development. New Directions for Child Development, 42, 59-72.
89.
Spencer, M. B.
(1990). Parental values transmission: Implications for the development of African American children. In H. E. Cheatham & J. B. Stewart (Eds.), Blackfamilies: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 111-130). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
90.
Spencer, M. B.
, & Markstrom-Adams, C. (1990). Identity processes among racial and ethnic minority children in America. Child Development, 61, 290-310.
91.
Stevens, A.
(1981). Attenuation of the mother-child bond and male initiation into adult life. Journal of Adolescence, 4, 131-148.
92.
Streitmatter, J. L.
(1988). Ethnicity as a mediating variable of early adolescent identity development. Journal of Adolescence, 11, 335-346.
93.
Thompson, B.
(1992). Black madonnas & young lions: A rites ofpassage for African American adolescents. Washington, DC: Roots Activity Learning Center.
94.
Thompson, V. S.
(1990). Factors affecting the level of African American identification. Journal of Black Psychology, 17, 19-36.
95.
van Gennep, A.
(1960). The rite of passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published in 1908)
96.
Vizedom, M.
(1976). Rites and relationships: Rites of passage and contemporary anthropology (Vol. 4). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
97.
Warfield-Coppock, N.
(1990). Afrocentric theory and applications: Adolescent rites of passage (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: Boabab.
98.
Warfield-Coppock, N.
, & Coppock, B. A. (1992). Afrocentric theory and applications: Advances in the adolescent rites of passage (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: Boabab.
99.
Waterman, A. S.
(1985). Identity in the context of adolescent psychology. New Directions for Child Development, 30, 5-24.
100.
Waterman, A. S.
(1989). Curricula interventions for identity change: Substantive and ethical considerations. Journal of Adolescence, 12, 389-400.
101.
Watts, R. J.
(1993). Community action through manhood development: A look at concepts and concerns from the frontline. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 333-359.
102.
Williams, R. L.
(1983). The collective Black mind: An Afro-centric theory of Black personality. St. Louis, MO: Williams & Associates.
103.
Wright, B. H.
(1985). The effects of racial self-esteem on the personal self-esteem of Black youth. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 9, 19-30.
