Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Despite extensive research on Black racial identity, significant gaps remain in understanding the structure of race-related ideological views and their impact on psychosocial functioning. This study examined these associations across two samples of Black American adults (Ns = 578 and 353). In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis identified latent factors underlying widely used measures of racial ideology. Study 2 evaluated the structural validity of these factors using confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM). Study 3 examined their links to demographics, psychological well-being, interpersonal functioning, and sociopolitical activism. ESEM models provided superior fit, yielding four ideology factors: Nationalism, Afrocentricity, Centrality, and Critical Consciousness. Nationalism and Afrocentricity were positively related to depressive, anxiety, and stress symptoms. Nationalism was also associated with greater friendship racial homophily. Centrality and Critical Consciousness showed no significant associations with psychological well-being. All four ideologies were positively associated with sociopolitical activism, particularly Nationalism and Critical Consciousness. This research advances the understanding of Black racial identity ideologies to inform interventions to enhance the well-being and civic engagement of Black individuals.

Keywords

racial identity activism Black Americans exploratory structural equation modeling psychological well-being

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ajayi

A. A.

Grier-Reed

Houseworth

(2022). In this together? Exploring moderating and mediating effects of shared racial fate on the predictive role of racial socialization and discrimination on black activism. Journal of Black Psychology, 48(3–4), 327–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984211067619

Ajayi

A. A.

Mitchell

L. L.

Nelson

S. C.

Fish

Peissig

L. H. M

Causadias

J. M.

Syed

(2021). Person-environment fit and retention of racially minoritized college students: Recommendations for faculty, support staff, and administrators. Education Sciences, 11(271), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11060271

Ajayi

A. A.

Syed

(2016). How stigma gets under the skin: Internalized oppression and dual minority stress among Black sexual minorities. In Sullivan

J. M.

Cross

W. E.

(Eds.), Meaning-making, internalized racism, and African American identity (pp. 211–228). State University of New York Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781438462981-018

Allen

A. M.

Leach

C. W.

(2018). The psychology of martin Luther King Jr.’s “creative maladjustment” at societal injustice and oppression. Journal of Social Issues, 74(2), 317–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12271

Allen

M. S.

Iliescu

Greiff

(2022). Single item measures in psychological science: A call to action. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 38(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000699

Allport

(1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.

Asante

M. K.

(1991). The afrocentric idea in education. The Journal of Negro Education, 60(2), 170–180. https://doi.org/10.2307/2295608

Ashlee

A. A.

Zamora

Karikari

S. N.

(2017). We are woke: A collaborative critical autoethnography of three “womxn” of color graduate students in higher education. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 19(1), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v19i1.1259

Ashmore

R. D.

Deaux

McLaughlin-Volpe

(2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 80–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.80

10.

Asparouhov

Muthén

(2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 16(3), 397–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903008204

11.

Azmitia

Garcia Peraza

P. D.

Thomas

Ajayi

A. A.

Syed

(2023). The promises and challenges of using an intersectional framework to study identity development during adolescence and early adulthood. In Crockett

Carlo

Schulenberg

(Eds.), APA handbook of adolescent and young adult development. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000298-024

12.

Baldwin

J. A.

Bell

Y. R.

(1985). The African self-consciousness scale: An Africentric personality questionnaire. Western Journal of Black Studies, 9(2), 61–68.

13.

Banks

J. A.

Grambs

J. D.

(1972). Black self-concept. McGraw-Hill.

14.

Behrend

T. S.

Sharek

D. J.

Meade

A. W.

Wiebe

E. N.

(2011). The viability of crowdsourcing for survey research. Behavior Research Methods, 43(3), 800–813. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0081-0

15.

Berry

J. W.

Kalin

(1995). Multicultural and ethnic attitudes in Canada: An overview of the 1991 national Survey. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 27(3), 301–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/0008-400X.27.3.301

16.

Bhagwat

Kelly

Lambert

M. C.

(2012). Exploratory factor analysis of African self-consciousness scale scores. Assessment, 19(1), 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191111398314

17.

Bowleg

Huang

Brooks

Black

Burkholder

(2003). Triple jeopardy and beyond: Multiple minority stress and resilience among black lesbians. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 7(4), 87–108. https://doi.org/10.1300/J155v07n04_06

18.

Boykin

A. W.

Jagers

R. J.

Ellison

C. M.

Albury

(1997). Communalism: Conceptualization and measurement of an Afrocultural social orientation. Journal of Black Studies, 27(3), 409–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/002193479702700308

19.

Brandt

M. J.

Reyna

Chambers

J. R.

Crawford

J. T.

Wetherell

(2014). The ideological-conflict hypothesis: Intolerance among both liberals and conservatives. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413510932

20.

Brown

R. A.

Shaw

T. C.

(2002). Separate nations: Two attitudinal dimensions of black nationalism. The Journal of Politics, 64(1), 22–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2508.00116

21.

Buhrmester

Kwang

Gosling

S. D.

(2011). Amazon’s mechanical turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393980

22.

Burkard

A. W.

Ponterotto

J. G.

(2008). Cultural identity, racial identity, and multicultural personality. In Suzuki

Ponterotto

J. G.

(Eds.), Handbook of multicultural assessment: Clinical, psychological, and educational applications (3rd ed., pp. 52–72). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

23.

Chambers

J. R.

Schlenker

B. R.

Collisson

(2013). Ideology and prejudice: The role of value conflicts. Psychological Science, 24(2), 140–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612447820

24.

Chandler

Shapiro

(2016). Conducting clinical research using crowdsourced convenience samples. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12, 53–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093623

25.

Chang

E. C.

Ritter

E. H.

(1976). Ethnocentrism in black college students. The Journal of Social Psychology, 100(1), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1976.9711910

26.

Chappelle

Auelua-Toomey

S. L.

Roberts

S. O.

(2024). Sankofa: Using topic models to review the history of the journal of black psychology. Journal of Black Psychology, 50(1), 9–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984231221028

27.

Chew

A. Y.

Quintana

S. M.

(2016). Meta-analysis of cross racial identity scale. In Sullivan

J. M.

Cross

W. E.

(Eds.), Meaning-making, internalized racism, and African American identity (pp. 277–288). SUNY Press.

28.

Chiorri

Marsh

H. W.

Ubbiali

Donati

(2016). Testing the factor structure and measurement invariance across gender of the big five inventory through exploratory structural equation modeling. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(1), 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1035381

29.

Clark

K. B.

Clark

M. K.

(1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in negro pre-school children. The Journal of Social Psychology, 10(4), 591–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713394

30.

Clark

K. B.

Clark

M. K.

(1940). Skin color as a factor in racial identification of negro preschool children. The Journal of Social Psychology, 11(1), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1940.9918741

31.

Clark

L. A.

Watson

(1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.309

32.

Cohen

(1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155

33.

Cokley

Vandiver

(2012). Ethnic and racial identity. In Hansen

Altmaier

(Eds.), Oxford handbook of counseling psychology (pp. 291–325). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342314.013.0011

34.

Cokley

K. O.

(2007). Critical issues in the measurement of ethnic and racial identity: A referendum on the state of the field. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 224–239. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.224

35.

Cokley

K. O.

Helm

(2001). Testing the construct validity of scores on the multidimensional inventory of Black Identity. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34(2), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2001.12069025

36.

Cole

E. R.

(2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64(3), 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014564

37.

Coon

H. M.

Kemmelmeier

(2001). Cultural orientations in the United States: (re) examining differences among ethnic groups. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(3), 348–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022101032003006

38.

Costello

A. B.

Osborne

J. W.

(2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 10(7), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868

39.

Cross

W. E.

Jr. (1971). The negro-to-black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of black liberation. Black World, 20(9), 13–27.

40.

Cross

W. E.

Jr. (1991). Shades of black. Temple University Press.

41.

Cross

W. E.

Jr. Vandiver

B. J.

(2001). Nigrescence theory and measurement: Introducing the cross racial identity scale (CRIS). In Ponterotto

J. G.

Casas

J. M.

Suzuki

L. A.

Alexander

C. M.

(Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling(2nd ed., pp. 371–393). Sage.

42.

Dawson

Brown

Jackson

J. S.

(1998). National black politics study, 1993. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR02018

43.

Deutsch

(1960). Minority group and class status as related to social and personality factors in scholastic achievement (Society for applied anthropology monograph No. 2). Cornell University Press.

44.

Diemer

M. A.

Rapa

L. J.

Park

C. J.

Perry

J. C.

(2017). Development and validation of the critical consciousness scale. Youth & Society, 49(4), 461–483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X14538289

45.

Diener

E. D.

Emmons

R. A.

Larsen

R. J.

Griffin

(1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

46.

Ebert

K. L.

(2004). Demystifying colorblind ideology: Denying race, ignoring racial inequalities. In Herring

Keith

V. M.

Horton

H. D.

(Eds.), Skin deep: How race and complexion matter in the “colorblind” era (pp. 172–196). University of Illinois Press.

47.

Fanon

(1952). Black skin, white masks. Grove Press.

48.

Fhagen-Smith

P. E.

Vandiver

B. J.

Worrell

F. C.

Cross Jr

W. E.

(2010). (Re) examining racial identity attitude differences across gender, community type, and socioeconomic status among African American college students. Identity, 10(3), 164–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2010.495907

49.

Fisher

G. G.

Matthews

R. A.

Gibbons

A. M.

(2016). Developing and investigating the use of single-item measures in organizational research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 21(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039139

50.

Floyd

F. J.

Widaman

K. F.

(1995). Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.286

51.

Fouad

N. A.

Byars-Winston

A. M.

(2005). Cultural context of career choice: Meta‐analysis of race/ethnicity differences. The Career Development Quarterly, 53(3), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2005.tb00992.x

52.

Fowers

B. J.

Richardson

F. C.

(1996). Why is multiculturalism good? American Psychologist, 51(6), 609–621. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.6.609

53.

Freire

(1973). Education for critical consciousness. Continuum.

54.

Galliher

R. V.

Mclean

K. C.

Syed

(2017). An integrated developmental model for studying identity content in context. Developmental Psychology, 53(11), 2011–2022. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000299

55.

Gardner‐Kitt

D. L.

Worrell

F. C.

(2007). Measuring nigrescence attitudes in school‐aged adolescents ☆. Journal of Adolescence, 30(2), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.01.001

56.

Godsil

R. D.

Richardson

L. S.

(2017). Racial anxiety. Iowa Law Review, 102(5), 2235–2263.

57.

Grier-Reed

Ajayi

A. A.

(2019). Incorporating humanistic values and techniques in a culturally responsive therapeutic intervention for African American college students. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 58(1), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12087

58.

Grier-Reed

Ajayi

A. A.

Cotton

Wilson

R. J.

(2020). Foundational curriculum for the African American student network: Synthesis of discussion topics and themes. Journal of Adolescent and Family Health, 11(1), 4–34. https://scholar.utc.edu/jafh/vol11/iss1/4

59.

Guay

Morin

A. J. S.

Litalien

Valois

Vallerand

R. J.

(2015). Application of exploratory structural equation modeling to evaluate the academic motivation scale. The Journal of Experimental Education, 83(1), 51–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2013.876231

60.

Harper

B. E.

Tuckman

B. W.

(2006). Racial identity beliefs and academic achievement: Does being black hold students back? Social Psychology of Education, 9(4), 381–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-006-9001-z

61.

Hayton

J. C.

Allen

D. G.

Scarpello

(2004). Factor retention decisions in exploratory factor analysis: A tutorial on parallel analysis. Organizational Research Methods, 7(2), 191–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104263675

62.

Helms

J. E.

(1990). Black and white racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Greenwood Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/t06697-000

63.

Henry

P. J.

Sears

D. O.

(2002). The symbolic racism 2000 scale. Political Psychology, 23(2), 253–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00281

64.

Henson

R. K.

Roberts

J. K.

(2006). Use of exploratory factor analysis in published research: Common errors and some comment on improved practice. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(3), 393–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282485

65.

Hester

Axt

J. R.

Siemers

Hehman

(2023). Evaluating validity properties of 25 race-related scales. Behavior Research Methods, 55(4), 1758–1777. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-022-01873-w

66.

Hope

E. C.

Cryer-Coupet

Q. R.

Stokes

M. N.

(2020). Race-related stress, racial identity, and activism among young black men: A person-centered approach. Developmental Psychology, 56(8), 1484–1495. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000836

67.

Hopwood

C. J.

Donnellan

M. B.

(2010). How should the internal structure of personality inventories be evaluated? Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 14(3), 332–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/108886831036124

68.

Horowitz

E. L.

(1936) The development of attitude toward the negro (194, p. 47). Archives of Psychology (Columbia University).

69.

Horowitz

R. E.

(1939). Racial aspects of self-identification in nursery school children. Journal of Psychology, 7(1), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1939.9917623

70.

Hubbard

S. A.

Lakey

Jones

S. C. T.

Cage

J. L.

(2022). Black racial identity, perceived support, and mental health within dyadic relationships. Journal of Black Psychology, 48(6), 772–793. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984221079209

71.

Hughes

Rodriguez

Smith

E. P.

Johnson

D. J.

Stevenson

H. C.

Spicer

(2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747

72.

Hunter

C. D.

(2008). Individualistic and collectivistic worldviews: Implications for understanding perceptions of racial discrimination in African Americans and British Caribbean Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(3), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.55.3.321

73.

Hunter

C. D.

Joseph

(2010). Racial group identification and its relations to individualism/interdependence and race-related stress in African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 36(4), 483–511. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798409355794

74.

Jones-Eversley

Adedoyin

A. C.

Robinson

M. A.

Moore

S. E.

(2017). Protesting black inequality: A commentary on the civil rights movement and black lives matter. Journal of Community Practice, 25(3-4), 309–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705422.2017.1367343

75.

Joseph

Watson

N. N.

Wang

Case

A. D.

Hunter

C. D.

(2013). Rules of engagement: Predictors of black Caribbean immigrants' engagement with African American culture. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(4), 414–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032659

76.

Juan

M. J. D.

Syed

Azmitia

(2016). Intersectionality of race/ethnicity and gender among women of color and white women. Identity, 16(4), 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2016.1229606

77.

Kahn

J. H.

(2006). Factor analysis in counseling psychology research, training, and practice principles, advances, and applications. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(5), 684–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006286347

78.

Kambon

K. K. K.

(1992). The African personality in America: An Africancentered framework. Nubian Nation Publications.

79.

Kardiner

Ovesey

(1951). The mark of oppression. Norton.

80.

Kerpelman

L. C.

(1969). Student political activism and ideology: Comparative characteristics of activists and nonactivists. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 16(1), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026682

81.

King

D. K.

(1988). Multiple jeopardy, multiple consciousness: The context of a black feminist ideology. Routledge.

82.

Kline

R. B.

(2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.

83.

Krueger

N. T.

Garba

Stone-Sabali

Cokley

K. O.

Bailey

(2022). African American activism: The predictive role of race related stress, racial identity, and social justice beliefs. Journal of Black Psychology, 48(3–4), 273–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798420984660

84.

Lee

D. L.

Ahn

(2013). The relation of racial identity, ethnic identity, and racial socialization to discrimination–distress: A meta-analysis of black Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031275

85.

Levy

S. R.

West

Rosenthal

(2012). The contributing role of prevalent belief systems to intergroup attitudes and behaviors. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 5(1), 2–21. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1044

86.

Lewis

J. A.

Mendenhall

Harwood

S. A.

Huntt

M. B.

(2013). Coping with gendered racial microaggressions among black women college students. Journal of African American Studies, 17(1), 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-012-9219-0

87.

Lewis

J. A.

Neville

H. A.

(2015). Construction and initial validation of the gendered racial microaggressions scale for black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000062

88.

Lovibond

S. H.

Lovibond

P. F.

(1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales, 2nd ed. Psychology Foundation. https://doi.org/10.1037/t39835-000

89.

MacCallum

R. C.

Wegener

D. T.

Uchino

B. N.

Fabrigar

L. R.

(1993). The problem of equivalent models in applications of covariance structure analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.185

90.

Mama

(1995). Beyond the masks: Gender, race and subjectivity. Routledge.

91.

Marsh

H. W.

Liem

G. A. D.

Martin

A. J.

Morin

A. J. S.

Nagengast

(2011). Methodological-measurement fruitfulness of exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM): New approaches to key substantive issues in motivation and engagement. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 29(4), 322–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282911406657

92.

Marsh

H. W.

Lüdtke

Muthén

Asparouhov

Morin

A. J. S.

Trautwein

Nagengast

(2010). A new look at the big-five factor structure through exploratory structural equation modeling. Psychological Assessment, 22(3), 471–491. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019227

93.

Marsh

H. W.

Morin

A. J. S.

Parker

P. D.

Kaur

(2014). Exploratory structural equation modeling: An integration of the best features of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10(1), 85–110. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153700

94.

McCleary-Gaddy

A. T.

James

(2022). Skin tone, life satisfaction, and psychological distress among African Americans: The mediating effect of stigma consciousness. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 422–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320954251

95.

Moradi

Grzanka

P. R.

(2017). Using intersectionality responsibly: Toward critical epistemology, structural analysis, and social justice activism. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 500–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000203

96.

Morin

A. J.

Arens

A. K.

Marsh

H. W.

(2016). A bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling framework for the identification of distinct sources of construct-relevant psychometric multidimensionality. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23(1), 116–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.961800

97.

Neville

H. A.

Lilly

R. L.

Duran

Lee

R. M.

Browne

(2000). Construction and initial validation of the color-blind racial attitudes scale (CoBRAS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.1.59

98.

Nilsson

J. E.

Marszalek

J. M.

Linnemeyer

R. M.

Bahner

A. D.

Misialek

L. H.

(2011). Development and assessment of the social issues advocacy scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 71(1), 258–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164410391581

99.

Nilsson

J. E.

Schmidt

C. K.

(2005). Social justice advocacy among graduate students in counseling: An initial exploration. Journal of College Student Development, 46(3), 267–279. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2005.0030

100.

Norton

P. J.

(2007). Depression anxiety and stress scales (DASS-21): Psychometric analysis across four racial groups. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 20(3), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800701309279

101.

Oyserman

Coon

H. M.

Kemmelmeier

(2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3

102.

Pascoe

E. A.

Smart Richman

(2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059

103.

Pettigrew

T. F.

(1964). Profile of the negro American. Van Nostrand.

104.

Ponterotto

J. G.

Park-Taylor

(2007). Racial and ethnic identity theory, measurement, and research in counseling psychology: Present status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 282–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.282

105.

Reise

S. P.

Moore

T. M.

Haviland

M. G.

(2010). Bifactor models and rotations: Exploring the extent to which multidimensional data yield univocal scale scores. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92(6), 544–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2010.496477

106.

Richeson

J. A.

Nussbaum

R. J.

(2004). The impact of multiculturalism versus colorblindness on racial bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(3), 417–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2003.09.002

107.

Rivas-Drake

Syed

Umaña-Taylor

Markstrom

French

Schwartz

S. J.

Lee

(2014). Feeling good, happy, and proud: A meta-analysis of positive ethnic–racial affect and adjustment. Child Development, 85(1), 77–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12175

108.

Rosenberg

Simmons

(1971). Black and white self-esteem: The urban school child. American Sociological Association.

109.

Rosenthal

Levy

S. R.

(2010). The colorblind, multicultural, and polycultural ideological approaches to improving intergroup attitudes and relations. Social Issues and Policy Review, 4(1), 215–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01022.x

110.

Rosenthal

Levy

S. R.

(2012). The relation between polyculturalism and intergroup attitudes among racially and ethnically diverse adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026490

111.

Rowley

S. J.

Chavous

T. M.

Cooke

D. Y.

(2003). A person-centered approach to African-American gender differences in racial ideology. Self and Identity, 2(4), 287–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/714050249

112.

Ryan

C. S.

Casas

J. F.

Thompson

B. K.

(2010). Interethnic ideology, intergroup perceptions, and cultural orientation. Journal of Social Issues, 66(1), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01631.x

113.

Ryan

C. S.

Hunt

J. S.

Weible

J. A.

Peterson

C. R.

Casas

J. F.

(2007). Multicultural and colorblind ideology, stereotypes, and ethnocentrism among black and white Americans. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10(4), 617–637. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430207084105

114.

Ryff

C. D.

(1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069

115.

Ryff

C. D.

Keyes

C. L. M.

Hughes

D. L.

(2003). Status inequalities, perceived discrimination, and eudaimonic well-being: Do the challenges of minority life hone purpose and growth? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 275–291. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519779

116.

Schlomer

G. L.

Bauman

Card

N. A.

(2010). Best practices for missing data management in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018082

117.

Sears

D. O.

Savalei

(2006). The Political Color Line in America: Many “Peoples of Color” or Black Exceptionalism? Political Psychology, 27(6), 895–924. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2006.00542.x

118.

Sellers

R. M.

Chavous

T. M.

Cooke

D. Y.

(1998). Racial ideology and racial centrality as predictors of African American college students' academic performance. Journal of Black Psychology, 24(1), 8–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984980241002

119.

Sellers

R. M.

Rowley

S. A. J.

Chavous

T. M.

Shelton

J. N.

Smith

M. A.

(1997). Multidimensional inventory of black identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 805–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.805

120.

Sellers

R. M.

Shelton

J. N.

(2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 1079–1092. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1079

121.

Sellers

R. M.

Smith

M. A.

Shelton

J. N.

Rowley

S. A.

Chavous

T. M.

(1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African-American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 2(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2

122.

Sibley

C. G.

Duckitt

(2008). Personality and prejudice: A meta-analysis and theoretical review. Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 12(3), 248–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308319226

123.

Simmons

Worrell

F. C.

Berry

J. M.

(2008). Psychometric properties of scores on three black racial identity scales. Assessment, 15(3), 259–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191108314788

124.

Smalls

White

Chavous

Sellers

(2007). Racial ideological beliefs and racial discrimination experiences as predictors of academic engagement among African American adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 33(3), 299–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798407302541

125.

Smith

T. B.

Silva

(2011). Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(1), 42–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021528

126.

Stack

C. B.

Burton

L. M.

(1993). Kinscripts. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 24(2), 157–170. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.24.2.157

127.

Stokes

J. E.

Murray

C. B.

Peacock

M. J.

Kaiser

R. T.

(1994). Assessing the reliability, factor structure, and validity of the African self-consciousness scale in a general population of African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(1), 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984940201006

128.

Syed

(2013). Assessment of ethnic identity and acculturation. In Geisinger

(Ed.), APA handbook of testing and assessment in psychology. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14048-023

129.

Szymanski

D. M.

Lewis

J. A.

(2015). Race-related stress and racial identity as predictors of African American activism. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(2), 170–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414520707

130.

Tajfel

(1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge University Press.

131.

Telesford

Mendoza-Denton

Worrell

F. C.

(2013). Clusters of CRIS scores and psychological adjustment. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(1), 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031254

132.

Thompson

(2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10694-000

133.

Tinsley

H. E.

Tinsley

D. J.

(1987). Uses of factor analysis in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34(4), 414–424. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.34.4.414

134.

Tóth-Király

Bõthe

Rigó

Orosz

(2017). An illustration of the exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) framework on the passion scale. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–14, 1968. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01968

135.

Turner

E. A.

Harrell

S. P.

Bryant-Davis

(2022). Black love, activism, and community (BLAC): The BLAC model of healing and resilience. Journal of Black Psychology, 48(3–4), 547–568. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984211018364

136.

Vandiver

B. J.

Cross

W. E.

Jr. Fhagen-Smith

P. E.

Worrell

F. C.

Swim

J. K.

Caldwell

L. D.

(2000). The cross racial identity scale. Author. https://doi.org/10.1037/t01825-000

137.

Vandiver

B. J.

Cross

W. E.

Jr. Worrell

F. C.

Fhagen-Smith

P. E.

(2002). Validating the cross racial identity scale (CRIS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.49.1.71

138.

Vandiver

B. J.

Fhagen-Smith

P. E.

Cokley

K. O.

Cross

W. E.

Jr. Worrell

F. C.

(2001). Cross’ nigrescence model: From theory to scale to theory. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 29(3), 174–200. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2001.tb00516.x

139.

Vandiver

B. J.

Worrell

F. C.

Delgado-Romero

E. A.

(2009). A psychometric examination of multidimensional inventory of black identity (MIBI) scores. Assessment, 16(4), 337–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191109341958

140.

Watts

R. J.

Flanagan

(2007). Pushing the envelope on youth civic engagement: A developmental and liberation psychology perspective. Journal of Community Psychology, 35(6), 779–792. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20178

141.

Wendler

A. M.

Nilsson

J. E.

(2009). Universal-diverse orientation, cognitive complexity, and sociopolitical advocacy in counselor trainees. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 37(1), 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2009.tb00089.x

142.

Whittaker

V. A.

Neville

H. A.

(2010). Examining the relation between racial identity attitude clusters and psychological health outcomes in African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 36(4), 383–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798409353757

143.

Williams

O. R.

(2007). George S. Schuyler: Portrait of a black conservative. University of Tennessee Press.

144.

Wolsko

Park

Judd

C. M.

(2006). Considering the tower of babel: Correlates of assimilation and multiculturalism among ethnic minority and majority groups in the United States. Social Justice Research, 19(3), 277–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-006-0014-8

145.

Worrell

F. C.

(2015). Culture as race/ethnicity. In McLean

K. C.

Syed

(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of identity development (pp. 249–268). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199936564.013.029

146.

Worrell

F. C.

Cross

W. E.

Jr. Vandiver

B. J.

(2001). Nigrescence theory: Current status and challenges for the future. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 29(3), 201–209. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2001.tb00517.x

147.

Worrell

F. C.

Mendoza-Denton

Telesford

Simmons

Martin

J. F.

(2011). Cross racial identity scale (CRIS) scores: Stability and relationships with psychological adjustment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93(6), 637–648. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.608762

148.

Worrell

F. C.

Vandiver

B. J.

Schaefer

B. A.

Cross

W. E.

Fhagen-Smith

P. E.

(2006). Generalizing nigrescence profiles cluster analyses of cross racial identity scale (CRIS) scores in three independent samples. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(4), 519–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000005278281

149.

Worrell

F. C.

Watson

(2008). A confirmatory factor analysis of cross racial identity scale (CRIS) scores: Testing the expanded nigrescence model. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68(6), 1041–1058. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408318771

150.

Worthington

R. L.

Whittaker

T. A.

(2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127

151.

Yap

S. C. Y.

Settles

I. H.

Pratt-Hyatt

J. S.

(2011). Mediators of the relationship between racial identity and life satisfaction in a community sample of African American women and men. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(1), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022535

152.

Yip

Seaton

E. K.

Sellers

R. M.

(2010). Interracial and intraracial contact, school-level diversity, and change in racial identity status among African American adolescents. Child Development, 81(5), 1431–1444. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01483.x

153.

Zhou

Park

Choi

(2024). Friendship homophily trajectories among Asian American youth from high school to college. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 53(9), 2139–2150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-024-02008-4

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.36 MB

Empirically Derived Racial Ideologies Among Black Americans: Implications for Psychological Well-Being,Racial Homophily,and Sociopolitical Activism

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References

Supplementary Material