This study explored perceived racism and the usual ways of coping with these perceptions in a sample of 269 Black university students (53% female). Perceptions of inter- and intragroup racism were assessed with the Life Experiences and Stress scale, and coping was measured with the Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced scale. A principal component analysis suggested that inter- and intragroup racism were separable constructs. Correlation analyses revealed that inter- and intragroup racism were negatively associated with self-deception.Relative to females, t-test analyses indicated that males perceived more inter- and intragroup racism. The t-test analyses also revealed that females were more likely than males to use emotion-focused and religious coping responses, when negotiating perceptions of inter- and intragroup racism; and, when negotiating perceptions of intragroup racism, males were more likely than females to use alcohol as a coping response. The limitations of the study and directions for future research are discussed.
Bowen-Reid, T. L., & Harrell, J. P. (2002). Racist experiences and health outcomes: An examination of spirituality as a buffer. Journal of Black Psychology, 28, 18-36.
2.
Brondolo, E., Rieppi, R., Kelly, K. P., & Gerin, W. (2003). Perceived racism and blood pressure: A review of the literature and conceptual and methodological critique. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25, 55-65.
3.
Carver, D. P., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267-283.
4.
Clark, R. (2000). Perceptions of inter-ethnic group racism predict increased blood pressure responses to a laboratory challenge in college women. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 214-222.
5.
Clark, R. (2003a). Parental history of hypertension and coping responses predict blood pressure changes to a perceived racism speaking task in Black college volunteers. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 1012-1019.
6.
Clark, R. (2003b). Self-reported racism and social support predict blood pressure reactivity in Blacks. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25, 127-136.
7.
Clark, R. (2003c). Subjective stress and coping resources interact to predict blood pressure reactivity in Black college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 29, 445-462.
8.
Clark, R., & Adams, J. H. (in press). Moderating effects of perceived racism on John Henryism and blood pressure reactivity in Black college females. Annals of Behavioral Medicine.
9.
Clark, R., & Anderson, N. B. (2001). Efficacy of racism-specific coping styles as predictors of cardiovascular functioning. Ethnicity & Disease, 11, 286-295.
10.
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805-816.
11.
Clark, V. R. (2001). The perilous effects of racismon blacks. Ethnicity & Disease, 11, 769-772.
12.
Clark, V. R., & Harrell, J. P. (1982). The relationship among Type A behavior, styles used in coping with racism, and blood pressure. Journal of Black Psychology, 8, 89-99.
13.
Cooper, R. S. (1993). Health and the social status of Blacks in the United States. Annals of Epidemiology, 3, 137-144.
14.
Darity, W. A. (2003). Employment discrimination, segregation, and health. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 226-231.
15.
Davis, J. F. (1991). Who is Black?: One nation’s definition. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
16.
Davis, K. B., Daniels, M., & See, L. A. (1998). The psychological effects of skin color on African-Americans’ self-esteem [Special issue: Human behavior in the social environment from an African American perspective]. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 1, 63-90.
17.
Fernando, S. (1984). Racism as a cause of depression. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 30, 41-49.
18.
Fields, L., & Prinz, R. J. (1997). Coping and adjustment during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 937-976.
19.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150-170.
20.
Forman, T. A., Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (1997). Race, place, and discrimination. Social Problems, 9, 231-261.
21.
Gatewood, W. B., Jr. (1988). Aristocrats of color: South and North, the Black elite, 1880-1920. Journal of Southern History, 54, 3-20.
22.
Hall, R. E. (1992). Bias among African-Americans regarding skin color: Implications for work practice. Research on Social Work Practice, 2, 479-486.
23.
Harrell, J. P. (1979). Analyzing Black coping styles: A supplemental diagnostic system. Journal of Black Psychology, 5, 99-108.
24.
Harrell, J. P., Hall, S., & Taliaferro, J. (2003). Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: An assessment of the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 243-248.
25.
Harrell, J. P., Merritt, M. M., & Kalu, J. K. (1998). Racism, stress, and disease. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), African American mental health (pp. 247-280). Hampton, VA: Cobb & Henry.
26.
Harrell, S. P. (1997a, May). Development and initial validation of scales to measure racismrelated stress. Poster session presented at the 6th Biennial Conference on Community Research and Action, Society for Community Research and Action (Division 27, American Psychological Association), Columbia, SC.
27.
Harrell, S. P. (1997b). The Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RALES). Unpublished instrument.
28.
Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42-57.
29.
Harrell, S. P., Merchant, M. A., & Young, S. A. (1997, August). Psychometric properties of the Racism and Life Experience Scales (RALES). Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago.
30.
Hughes, M., & Hertel, B. R. (1990). The significance of color remains: A study of life chances, mate selection, and ethnic consciousness among Black Americans. Social Forces, 68, 1105-1120.
31.
James, S. A. (1993). Racial and ethnic differences in infant mortality and low birth weight: A psychosocial critique. Annals of Epidemiology, 3, 130-136.
32.
James, S. A., Harnett, S. A., & Kalsbeek, W. D. (1983). John Henry ismand blood pressure differences among Black men. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 6, 259-278.
33.
Johnson, J. D., & Lecci, L. (2003). Assessing anti-White attitudes and predicting perceived racism: The Johnson-Lecci scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 299-312.
34.
Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
35.
Keith, V. M., & Herring, C. (1991). Skin tone and stratification in the Black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 760-778.
36.
Krieger, N. (1990). Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure?Social Science & Medicine, 12, 1273-1281.
37.
Krieger, N. (1999). Embodying inequality: A review of concepts, measures, and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination. International Journal of Health Services, 29, 295-352.
38.
Krieger, N., & Sidney, S. (1996). Racial discrimination and blood pressure: The CARDIA study of young Black and White adults. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1370-1378.
39.
Krieger, N., Sidney, S., & Coakley, E. (1998). Racial discrimination and skin color in the CARDIA study: Implications for public health research. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 1308-1313.
40.
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144-168.
41.
Lazarus, R., & Launier, R. (1978). Stress related transactions between person and environment. In A. Pervin & M. Lewis (Eds.), Perspectives in international psychology (pp. 284-327). New York: Plenum.
42.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
43.
Maddox, K. B., & Gray, S. A. (2002). Cognitive representations of Black Americans: Reexploring the role of skin tone. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 250-259.
44.
Major, B., Gramzow, R. H., McCoy, S. K., Levin, S., Schmader, T., & Sidanius, J. (2002). Perceiving personal discrimination: The role of group status and legitimizing ideology. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 82, 269-282.
45.
Mattis, J. S., Bell, C. C., Jagers, R. J., & Jenkins, E. (1999). A critical approach to stress-related disorders in African Americans. Journal of the National Medical Association, 91, 80-85.
46.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice as stress: Conceptual and measurement problems. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 262-265.
47.
National Center for Health Statistics. (1998). Health, United States, 1998 with socioeconomic status and health chartbook. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Government Printing Office.
48.
Neal, A. M., & Wilson, M. L. (1989). The role of skin color and features in the Black community: Implications for Black women and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 9, 323-333.
49.
Okazawa-Rey, M., Robinson, T., & Ward, J. V. (1986). Black women and the politics of skin color and hair. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 14, 13-14.
50.
Paulhus, D. L. (1991). BIDR reference manual for Version 6. British Columbia, Canada: University of British Columbia.
51.
Russell, K. Y., Wilson, M., & Hall, R. E. (1992). The color complex: The politics of skin color among African Americans. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
52.
Sanders-Thompson, V. L. (2002). Racism: Perceptions of distress among African Americans. Community Mental Health Journal, 38, 111-118.
53.
Sellars, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079-1092.
54.
Sigelman, L., & Welch, S. (1991). Black Americans’ views of racial inequality: The dream deferred. New York: Cambridge University Press.
55.
Stevenson, H. C., Jr. (1994). Validation of the Scale of Racial Socialization for African American adolescents: Steps toward multidimensionality. Journal of Black Psychology, 20, 445-468.
56.
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., Fitzgerald, D. C., & Bylsma, W. H. (2003). African American college students’ experiences with everyday racism: Characteristics of and responses to these incidents. Journal of Black Psychology, 29, 38-67.
57.
Troxel, W. M., Matthews, K. A., Bromberger, J. T., & Sutton-Tyrrell, K. (2003). Chronic stress burden, discrimination, and subclinical carotid artery disease in African American and Caucasian women. Health Psychology, 22, 300-309.
58.
Udry, J. R., Bauman, K. E., & Chase, C. (1971). Skin color, status, and mate selection. American Journal of Sociology, 76, 722-733.
59.
Utsey, S. O. (1998). Assessing the stressful effects of racism: A review of instrumentation. Journal of Black Psychology, 24, 269-288.
60.
Utsey, S. O., Adams, E. P., & Bolden, M. (2000a). Development and initial validation of the Africultural coping systems inventory. Journal of Black Psychology, 26, 194-215.
61.
Utsey, S. O., Payne, Y. A., Jackson, E. S., & Jones, A. M. (2002). Race-related stress, quality of life indicators, and life satisfaction among elderly African Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 224-233.
62.
Utsey, S. O., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., & Cancelli, A. A. (2000b). Racial discrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78, 72-80.
63.
Williams, D. R. (2003). The health of men: Structured inequalities and opportunities. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 724-731.
64.
Williams, D. R., & Neighbors, H. (2001). Racism, discrimination and hypertension: Evidence and needed research. Ethnicity & Disease, 11, 800-816.
65.
Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200-208.
66.
Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., & Jackson, J. (1997a, July). The costs of racism: Discrimination, race, and health. Paper presented at the Joint meeting of the Public Health Conference on Records and Statistics and Data User’s Conference, Washington, DC.
67.
Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J., & Anderson, N. (1997b). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socioeconomic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 335-351.
68.
Zeidner, M., & Endler, N. S. (Eds.).(1996). Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications. New York: John Wiley.
