This study assessed military life factors associated with initiation and completion of postsecondary degrees among military spouses. We used data on military spouses from the Millennium Cohort Family Study (2011–2013) matched to National Student Clearinghouse data on postsecondary degree enrollment and completion. Using Cox proportional hazard models, we found that sex, age, military life stress, family responsibilities, and financial stress were significant predictors of degree completion. Using accelerated-failure time models, we further found that the spouse’s age, number of deployments, and military experience were significant predictors of time to graduation. The findings shed light on the unique challenges of degree attainment faced by one category of nontraditional students—military spouses.
AjayiK. V.OdonkorG.PanjwaniS.AremuO.GarneyW.McKyerL. E. (2022). Socio-ecological barriers to student-parents academic success: A systematic review. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 46(9), 1257–1274. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1911093
2.
BeanJ. P. (1980). Dropout and turnover: The synthesis and test of a causal model of student attrition. Research in Higher Education, 12(2), 155–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00976194
3.
BeanJ. P. (1985). Interaction effects based on class level in an explanatory model of college student dropout syndrome. American Educational Research Journal, 22(1), 35–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312022001035
4.
BelfieldC.BaileyT. (2017). The labor market returns to sub-baccalaureate college: A review [CAPSEE Working Paper]. Center for Analysis of Postsecondary Education and Employment. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED574804
5.
BonuraK. B.LovaldN. (2015). Military cultural competency: Understanding how to serve those who serve. Higher Learning Research Communications, 5(2), 4–13. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1132901
6.
BorahE.FinaB. (2017). Military spouses speak up: A qualitative study of military and veteran spouses’ perspectives. Journal of Family Social Work, 20(2), 144–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2017.1284702
7.
BurkeJ.MillerA. R. (2018). The effects of job relocation on spousal careers: Evidence from military change of station moves. Economic Inquiry, 56(2), 1261–1277. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12529
CorryN. H.WilliamsC. S.BattagliaM.McMasterH. S.StanderV. A. (2017). Assessing and adjusting for non-response in the Millennium Cohort Family Study. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 17, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-017-0294-8
11.
CutlerD. M.Lleras-MuneyA.VoglT. (2008). Socioeconomic status and health: Dimensions and mechanisms. Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(3), 374–387. https://.doi.org/10.3386/w14333
12.
DaLombaE.GreerM. J.CruzE.HarrisA.KingC.LaurelL.McCuaigT.WilderR. (2021). The experiences of active duty military spouses with advanced degrees in maintaining and advancing their careers. Work, 68(2), 387–398. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-203380
13.
De BreyC.SnyderT. D.ZhangA.DillowS. A. (2021). Digest of education statistics. National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/2021menu_tables.asp
14.
De BreyC.SnyderT. D.ZhangA.DillowS. A. (2022). Digest of education statistics. National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/2022menu_tables.asp
FletcherJ.NoghanibehambariH. (2021). The effects of education on mortality: Evidence using college expansions. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4787
GalamaT. J.Lleras-MuneyA.Van KippersluisH. (2018). The effect of education on health and mortality: A review of experimental and quasi-experimental evidence. Social Science & Medicine, 196, 143–151. https://doi.org/10.3386/w24225
HarrellM. C.LimN.CastanedaL. W.GolinelliD. (2004). Working around the military: Challenges to military spouse employment and education. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG196.html
22.
HeatonP.KrullH. (2012). Unemployment among post-9/11 veterans and military spouses after the economic downturn. RAND National Defense Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.017
23.
HummerR. A.LariscyJ. T. (2011). Educational attainment and adult mortality. In RogersR.CrimminsE. (Eds.), International handbook of adult mortality (pp. 241–261). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9996-9_12
24.
JonesD.KazisL.LeeA.RogersW.SkinnerK.CassarL.WilsonN.HendricksA. (2001). Health status assessments using the Veterans SF-36 and SF-12: Methods for evaluating outcomes in the Veterans Health Administration. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 24(3), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004479-200107000-00011
25.
KazisL. E.LeeA.SpiroA.III.RogersW. H.RenX. S.MillerD. R.SelimA.HamedA.HafferS. C. (2004). Measurement comparisons of the medical outcomes study and the Veterans SF-36® Health Survey. Health Care Financing Review, 25(4), 43–58.
26.
KazisL. E.MillerD. R.ClarkJ.SkinnerK.LeeA.RogersW.SpiroA.III.PayneS.FinckeG.SelimA.LinzerM. (1998). Health related quality of life in VA patients: Results from the Veterans Health Study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158, 626–632. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.158.6.626
27.
KazisL. E.MillerD. R.ClarkJ. A.SkinnerK. M.LeeA.RenX. S.SpiroA.III.RogersW. H.WareJ. E.Jr. (2004). Improving the response choices on the veterans SF-36 health survey role functioning scales: Results from the Veterans Health Study. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 27(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004479-200407000-00010
28.
KazisL. E.MillerD. R.SkinnerK. M.LeeA.RenX. S.ClarkJ. A.RogersW. H.SpiroA.III.SelimA. J.LinzerM.PayneS.MansellD.FinckeG. (2004). Patient reported measures of health: The Veterans Health Study. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 27(1), 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004479-200401000-00012
KnappD.MarroneJ. V.MillerL. L.TrailT. E. (2019). The impact of a spouse incentive on employee retention: Evidence from a military spouse scholarship. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/working_papers/WR1295.html
31.
KofoedM. S. (2020). Where have all the GI Bill dollars gone? Veteran usage and expenditure of the Post-9/11 GI Bill. Brookings Economic Studies, 1.
Lleras-MuneyA.MoreauF. (2022). A unified model of cohort mortality. Demography, 59(6), 2109–2134.
35.
LochnerL.MorettiE. (2004). The effect of education on crime: Evidence from prison inmates, arrests, and self-reports. American Economic Review, 94(1), 155–189. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282804322970751
36.
MaJ.PenderM.WelchM. (2016). Education pays 2016: The benefits of higher education for individuals and society. College Board. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED572548
37.
MeadowsS. O.GriffinB. A.KarneyB. R.PollakJ. (2016). Employment gaps between military spouses and matched civilians. Armed Forces & Society, 42(3), 542–561. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X1560781
National Center for Education Statistics. (2021). Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Winter 2020–21, graduation rates component [See Digest of Education Statistics 2021, table 326.10]. https://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/survey-components/9
40.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2022). Undergraduate retention and graduation rates. Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/ctr
NetemeyerR. G.BolesJ. S.McMurrianR. (1996). Development and validation of work–family conflict and family–work conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 400–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.400
OttL. E.MorganJ. K.AkroydH. D. (2018). Impact of military lifestyle on military spouses’ educational and career goals. Journal of Research in Education, 28(1), 30–61. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1168179
47.
PetersonS. (2016). Community college student-parents: Priorities for persistence. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 40(5), 370–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668926.2015.1065210
48.
PorterB.KolajaC.PowellT.PfliegerJ.StanderV. A.ArmentaR. (2019). Reducing the length of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 36(5), 829–838. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000553
RedmondS. A.WilcoxS. L.CampbellS.KimA.FinneyK.BarrK.HassanA. M. (2015). A brief introduction to the military workplace culture. Work, 50(1), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-141987
51.
SpitzerR.WilliamsJ.KroenkeK., & The Patient Health Questionnaire Primary Care Study Group. (1999). Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: The PHQ. JAMA, 282(18), 1737–1744. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.18.1737
52.
TintoV.CullenJ. (1973). Dropout in higher education: A review and theoretical synthesis of recent research [Contract OEC-0-73-1409]. Office of Education (DHEW). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED078802.pdf
53.
TongP. K.PayneL. A.BondC. A.MeadowsS. O.LewisJ. L.FriedmanE. M.Maksabedian HernandezE. J. (2018). Enhancing family stability during a permanent change of station: A review of disruptions and policies. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2304.html
54.
WoodallK. A.KolajaC. A.McMasterH. M.RullR. P.FurneA.ArmstrongN. J.StanderV. A., & the Millennium Cohort Family Study Team. (2026). Influence of mobility and work–family conflict on U.S. military spouse employment. Family Relations, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.70181
55.
WoodallK.RichardsonS.EsquivelA.RoeschS.StanderV.McMasterH., & the Millennium Cohort Family Study Team. (2024). Indicators of financial well-being among military spouses. Naval Health Research Center. https://www.familycohort.org/researchers/featured-findings
56.
WoodallK. A.EsquivelA. P.PowellT. M.RiviereL. A.AmorosoP. J.StanderV. A., & Millennium Cohort Family Study Team. (2023). Influence of family factors on service members’ decisions to leave the military. Family Relations, 72(3), 1138–1157. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12757
57.
XueX.ChengM.ZhangW. (2021). Does education really improve health? A meta-analysis. Journal of Economic Surveys, 35(1), 71–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12399
