Although psychology had a brief—and rather dramatic—foray into the legal system early in this century, it was only after World War II that psychology started to systematically permeate the legal system. Building on the interest psychologists and other social scientists had on the law, education and training in the areas of psychology and law/criminal justice has undergone considerable growth and development over the past two decades. The authors discuss the early developments and current models of this education and training. Implications of the increased interest and training in psychology and law/criminal justice, and directions for future developments in these areas, also are explored.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Aaronson, E. , Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (1994). Social psychology: The heart and the mind. New York: HarperCollins.
2.
Abt, L. E. , & Stuart, I. R. (Eds.). (1979). Social psychology and discretionary law. New York: Von Nostrand Reinhold.
3.
Aiken, L. R. (1994). Psychological testing and assessment (8th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
4.
Andrews, D. A. , & Bonta, J. (1994). The psychology of criminal conduct. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
5.
Appendix to Appellants' Brief in the School Segregation Cases, The effects of segregation and the consequences of desegregation: A social science statement . (1953). Minnesota Law Review, 37, 427-439. (Reprinted from Appendix to Appellants' Brief, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 [1954])
6.
Baron, R. A. , & Byrne, D. (1994). Social psychology: Understanding human interaction. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
7.
Bartol, C. R. (1980). Criminal behavior: A psychosocial approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
8.
Bartol, C. R. , & Bartol, A. M. (1987). History of forensic psychology. In I. D. Weiner & A. K. Hess (Eds.), Handbook of forensic psychology (pp. 3-21). New York: John Wiley.
9.
Bartol, C. R. , & Bartol, A. M. (1994). Psychology and law: Research and application. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
10.
Bazelon, D. L. (1982). Veils, values, and social responsibility. American Psychologist, 37, 115-121.
11.
Bermant, G. , Nemeth, C., & Vidmar, N. (Eds.). (1976). Psychology and the law. Lexington, MA: Lexington.
12.
Blank, L. , & David, H. P. (1964). Sourcebook for training in clinical psychology. New York: Springer.
13.
Bok, D. (1983). A flawed system of law practice and training. Journal of Legal Education, 33, 570-585.
14.
Bolton, F. E. (1896). The accuracy of recollection and observation. Psychological Review, 3, 286-295.
15.
Boring, E. G. (1950). A history of experimental psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
16.
Brodsky, S. L. (1973). Psychologists in the criminal justice system. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
17.
Brodsky, S. L. (1977). Psychology at the interface of law and corrections. Law and Psychology Review, 3, 1-14.
18.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
19.
Cahan, E. D. , & White, S. H. (1992). Proposals for a second psychology. American Psychologist, 47, 224-235.
20.
Cahn, E. (1955). Jurisprudence. New York University Law Review, 30, 150-169.
21.
Cairns, H. (1935). Law and the social sciences. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
22.
Cattell, J. M. (1895). Measurements of the accuracy of recollection. Science, 2, 761-766.
23.
Cattell, J. M. (1896). Address of the president before the American Psychological Association. Psychological Review, 3, 134-148.
24.
(Reprinted from Effect of prejudice and discrimination on personality development, 1950, Washington, DC: White House Conference on Children and Youth)
25.
Clark, K. B. , & Clark, M. P. (1958). Racial identification and preference in Negro children. In E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, & E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (3rd ed., pp. 602-611). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. (Original work published 1947)
26.
Cohn, A. , & Udolf, R. (1979). The criminal justice system and its psychology. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
27.
Committee on Professional Practice and Standards . (1994). Guidelines for child custody evaluations in divorce proceedings. American Psychologist, 49, 677-680.
28.
Dent, H. , & Flin, R. H. (Eds.). (1992). Children as witnesses. New York: John Wiley.
29.
Doris, J. (Ed.). (1991). The suggestibility of children's recollections. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
30.
Ellison, K. W. , & Buckhout, R. (1981). Psychology and criminal justice. New York: Harper & Row.
31.
Fenster, C. A. , Litwack, T. R., & Symonds, M. (1975). The making of a forensic psychologist: Needs and goals for doctoral training. Professional Psychology, 6, 457-467.
32.
Foley, L. A. (1993). A psychological view of the legal system. Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.
33.
Foote, C. (1958). The Law and Behavioral Science Project at the University of Pennsylvania: Family and criminal law. Journal of Legal Education, 11, 80-86.
34.
Freeman, R. J. , & Roesch, R. (1992). Psycholegal education: Training for forum and function. In D. K. Kagehiro & W. S. Laufer (Eds.), Handbook of psychology and law (pp. 567-576). New York: Springer-Verlag.
35.
Friedman, L. M. (1985). A history of American law (2nd ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster.
36.
Getman, J. G. (1985). Contributions of empirical data to legal education. Journal of Legal Education, 35, 489-494.
37.
Gormally, J. , & Brodsky, S. L. (1973). Utilization and training of psychologists in the criminal justice system. American Psychologist, 28, 926-928.
38.
Grisso, T. (1987). The economic and scientific future of forensic psychology assessment. American Psychologist, 42, 831-839.
39.
Grisso, T. (1991). A developmental history of the American Psychology-Law Society. Law and Human Behavior, 15, 213-230.
40.
Grisso, T. , Sales, B. D., & Bayless, S. (1982). Law-related courses and programs in graduate psychology departments. American Psychologist, 37, 267-278.
41.
Hafemeister, T. L. , & Melton, G. B. (1987). The impact of social science research on the judiciary. In G. B. Melton (Ed.), Reforming the law: Impact of child development research (pp. 27-59). New York: Guilford.
42.
Hafemeister, T. L. , Ogloff, J. R. P., & Small, M. A. (1990). Training and careers in law and psychology: The perspective of students and graduates of dual degree programs. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 8, 263-284.
43.
Hale, M. (1980). Human science and social order: Hugo Munsterberg and origins of applied psychology. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
44.
Heilbrun, K. , & Annis, L. (1988). Research and training in forensic psychology: National survey of forensic facilities. Professional Psychology, 19, 211-215.
45.
Hoch, E. L. , & Darley, J. G. (1962). A case at law. American Psychologist, 17, 623-654.
46.
Holmes, D. S. (1994). Abnormal psychology (2nd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
47.
Horowitz, I. A. , & Willging, T. E. (1984). The psychology of law: Integrations and applications. Toronto, Canada: Little, Brown.
48.
Jenkins v. United States, 307 F.2d 637 (D.C. Cir. 1962) (en banc).
49.
Kalman, L. (1986). Legal realism at Yale, 1927-1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
50.
Kalven, H., Jr. (1948). Law school training in research and exposition: The University of Chicago program. Journal of Legal Education, 1, 107-123.
51.
Kaslow, F. (1989). Early history of the American Board of Forensic Psychology. Forensic Reports, 2, 305-311.
52.
Kaye, D. (1985). Please pass the social science. Journal of Legal Education, 35, 495-506.
53.
Kluger, R. (1976). Simple justice: The history of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's struggle for equality. New York: Knopf.
54.
Krivoshey, R. M. (1994). Juries: Formation and behavior. New York: Garland.
55.
Kunke, M. I. (1980). Forensic psychology: A threat and a response. Professional Psychology, 11, 72-77.
56.
Lahey, B. B. (1992). Psychology: An introduction (4th ed.). Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.
57.
Laswell, H. , & McDougal, M. (1943). Legal education and public policy: Professional teaching in the public interest. Yale Law Journal, 52, 203-295.
58.
Lawlor, R. J. , Siskind, G., & Brooks, J. (1981). Forensic training at internships: Update and criticisms. Professional Psychology, 12, 400-405.
59.
Levin, A. L. (1958). The Law and Behavioral Science Project at the University of Pennsylvania: Evidence. Journal of Legal Education, 11, 87-93.
60.
Levine, D. , Wilson, K., & Sales, B. D. (1980). An exploratory assessment of APA internships with legal/forensic experiences. Professional Psychology, 11, 64-71.
61.
Loftus, E. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
62.
Loh, W. D. (1981). Perspectives on psychology and law. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 11, 314-355.
63.
Loh, W. D. (1984). Social research in the judicial process: Cases, readings and text. New York: Russell Sage.
64.
Louisell, D. W. (1955). The psychologist in today's legal world: Part I. Minnesota Law Review, 39, 235-260.
65.
Louisell, D. W. (1957). The psychologist in today's legal world: Part II. Minnesota Law Review, 41, 731-750.
66.
McCrary, J. L. (1956). The psychologist as an expert witness in court. American Psychologist, 11, 8-13.
67.
Meadows, R. J. (1987). Beliefs of law enforcement administrators and criminal justice educators toward the needed skill competencies in entry-level police training curriculum. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 15, 1-9.
68.
Melton, G. B. (1987a). Guidelines for effective diffusion of child development research in the legal system. In G. B. Melton (Ed.), Reforming the law: Impact of child development research (pp. 280-300). New York: Guilford.
69.
Melton, G. B. (Ed.). (1987b). Reforming the law: Impact of child development research. New York: Guilford.
70.
Melton, G. B. (1987c). Training in psychology and law. In I. D. Weiner & A. K. Hess (Eds.), Handbook of forensic psychology (pp. 681-697). New York: John Wiley.
71.
Melton, G. B. (1990). Realism in psychology and humanism in law: Psycholegal studies at Nebraska. Nebraska Law Review, 69, 251-277.
72.
Melton, G. B. (1991). President's column. American Psychology Law Society News, 11(2), 1-3.
73.
Melton, G. B. , Monahan, J., & Saks, M. J. (1987). Psychologists as law professors. American Psychologist, 42, 502-509.
74.
Monahan, J. (Ed.). (1976). Community mental health and the criminal justice system. New York: Pergamon.
75.
Monahan, J. (1986). Slouching towards crime. Yale Law Journal, 85, 1536-1551.
76.
Monahan, J. , & Loftus, E. F. (1982). The psychology of law. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 441-475.
77.
Monahan, J. , & Walker, L. (1985). Social science in law: Cases and materials. Mineola, NY: Foundation Press.
78.
Moore, C. (1907). Yellow psychology. Law Notes, 11, 125-127.
79.
Morawski, J. G. (1992). There is more to our history of giving: The place of introductory textbooks in American psychology. American Psychologist, 47, 161-169.
80.
Moskowitz, M. J. (1977). Hugo Munsterberg: A study in the history of applied psychology. American Psychologist, 32, 824-842.
81.
Munsterberg, H. (1908). On the witness stand: Essays on psychology and crime. New York: Doubleday, Page.
82.
Muraskin, R. (Ed.). (1987). The future of criminal justice education: Looking toward the 21st century. Available from the editor, Long Island University, Brookville, NY.
83.
Nevid, J. S. , Rathus, S. A., & Greene, B. (1994). Abnormal psychology in a challenging world (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
84.
Nietzel, M. T. , & Moss, C. S. (1972). The psychologist in the criminal justice system. Professional Psychology, 3, 259-270.
85.
Ogloff, J. R. P. (1990). Law and psychology in Canada: The need for training and research. Canadian Psychology, 31, 61-73.
86.
Ogloff, J. R. P. (Ed.). (1992). Law and psychology: The broadening of the discipline. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
87.
Ogloff, J. R. P. , Roberts, C. F., & Roesch, R. (1993). The insanity defence: Legal standards and clinical assessment. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 2, 163-178.
88.
Otto, R. K. , Heilbrun, K., & Grisso, T. (1990). Training and credentialing in forensic psychology. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 8, 217-232.
89.
Perlin, M. L. (1977). The legal status of the psychologist in the courtroom. Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 5, 41-54.
90.
Poythress, N. G. (1979). A proposal for training in forensic psychology. American Psychologist, 34, 612-621.
91.
Priest, G. L. (1983). Social science theory and legal education: The law school as university. Journal of Legal Education, 33, 437-441.
92.
Purcell, E. A., Jr. (1973). The crisis of democratic theory: Scientific naturalism and the problem of value. Louisville: University Press of Kentucky.
93.
Raimy, V. C. (1950). Training in clinical psychology. New York: Prentice Hall.
94.
Roesch, R. (1990). From the editor. Law and Human Behavior, 14, 1-3.
95.
Roesch, R. , Grisso, T., & Poythress, N. G. (1986). Training programs, courses, and workshops in psychology and law. In M. F. Kaplan (Ed.), The impact of social psychology on procedural justice (pp. 83-108). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
96.
Roesch, R. , Ogloff, J. R. P., & Golding, S. L. (1993). Competency to stand trial: Legal and clinical issues. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 2, 43-51.
97.
Saks, M. J. , & Hastie, R. (1978). Social psychology in court. New York: Von Nostrand Reinhold.
98.
Sales, B. D. (1977a). The criminal justice system. New York: Plenum.
99.
Sales, B. D. (1977b). Psychology in the legal process. New York: Spectrum.
100.
Sanford, E. C. (1890). Psychology at Clark University. American Journal of Psychology, 3, 284-285.
101.
Schlegel, J. H. (1979). American legal realism and empirical social science: From the Yale experience. Buffalo Law Review, 28, 459-586.
102.
Schlegel, J. H. (1980). American legal realism and empirical social science: The singular case of Underhill Moore. Buffalo Law Review, 29, 195-323.
103.
Schlegel, J. H. (1989). The ten thousand dollar question [Book review of Laura Kalman, Legal Realism at Yale: 1927-1960]. Stanford Law Review, 41, 435-467.
104.
Schofield, W. (1956). Law, psychology, and the expert witness. American Psychologist, 11, 1-7.
105.
Sherman, L. W. (1978). The quality of police education: A critical review with recommendations for improving programs in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
106.
Smith, E. R. , & Mackie, D. M. (1995). Social psychology. New York: Worth.
107.
Smith, R. E. (1993). Psychology. St. Paul, MN: West.
108.
Stern, W. (1910). Abstracts of lectures on the psychology of testimony. American Journal of Psychology, 21, 273-282.
109.
Stern, W. (1939). The psychology of testimony. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 34, 3-20.
110.
Stevens, R. (1983). Law school: Legal education in America from the 1850s to the 1890s. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
111.
Swenson, L. C. (1993). Psychology and law for the helping professions. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
112.
Tapp, J. L. (1976). Psychology and the law: An overview. Annual Review of Psychology, 27, 359-404.
113.
Tapp, J. L. (1977). Psychology and law: A look at the interface. In B. D. Sales (Ed.), Psychology in the legal process (pp. 1-15). New York: Spectrum.
114.
Tapp, J. L. , & Levine, F. J. (Eds.). (1977a). Law, justice, and the individual in society: Psychological and legal issues. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
115.
Tapp, J. L. , & Levine, F. J. (1977b). Reflections and redirections. In J. L. Tapp & F. J. Levine (Eds.), Law, justice and the individual in society: Psychological and legal issues (pp. 3-9). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
116.
Teitelbaum, L. E. (1985). An overview of law and social science research. Journal of Legal Education, 35, 465-477.
117.
Toch, H. (Ed.). (1961). Legal and criminal psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
118.
Tomkins, A. J. (Ed). (1990). Training and career options [Special issue]. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 8, 193-300.
119.
Tomkins, A. J. , & Ogloff, J. R. P. (1990). Training and career options in psychology and law. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 8, 205-216.
120.
Tomkins, A. J. , & Oursland, K. (1991). Social and social scientific perspectives in judicial interpretations of the Constitution: A historical view and an overview, Law and Human Behavior, 15, 101-120.
121.
Trubek, D. M. , & Plager, S. (1985). The place of law and social science in the structure of legal education. Journal of Legal Education, 35, 483-488.
122.
Twining, W. (1973). Karl Llewellyn and the realist movement. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
123.
Twining, W. (1985). Talk about realism. New York University Law Review, 60, 329-384.
124.
van den Haag, E. (1960). Social science testimony in the desegregation cases: A reply to Professor Kenneth Clark. Villanova Law Review, 6, 69-79.
125.
Wallace, D. H. (1990). Training in law and behavioral sciences: Issues from the criminal justice perspective. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 8, 249-262.
126.
Wallace, D. H. (1991). Social science research and policy in education: An interdisciplinary approach. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 2, 219-237.
127.
Ward, R. H. , & Webb, V. J. (1985). Quest for quality. New York: University Publications.
128.
Wexler, D. B. (1990). Training in law and behavioral sciences: Issues from a legal educator's perspective. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 8, 197-204.
129.
Whipple, G. M. (1909). The observer as a reporter: A survey of the “psychology of testimony.”Psychological Bulletin, 6, 153-170.
130.
Whipple, G. M. (1917). Psychology of testimony. Psychological Bulletin, 14, 234-236.
131.
White, G. E. (1972). From sociological jurisprudence to realism: Jurisprudence and social change in early twentieth-century America. Virginia Law Review, 58, 999-1028.
132.
White, G. E. (1976). The American judicial tradition: Profiles of leading American judges. New York: Oxford University Press.
133.
Wigmore, J. H. (1909). Professor Munsterberg and the psychology of testimony: Being a report of the case of Cokestone v. Munsterberg. Illinois Law Review, 3, 399-445.
134.
Woodworth, R. S. (1943). The adolescence of American psychology. Psychological Review, 50, 10-32.
135.
Wrightsman, L. S. , Nietzel, M. T., & Fortune, W. H. (1994). Psychology and the legal system (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
