Police Recruits’ Perceptions of the Utility of Body-Worn Cameras as a Training Tool

Abstract

Concerns about police behavior, especially police use of force, necessitate the identification of training procedures that optimize learning outcomes for police. This study explored the potential of body-worn cameras (BWCs) as a feedback tool during police training. Police recruits (N = 111) who had experienced a simulated use of force scenario and observed their BWC footage of that event were asked open-ended questions about their experiences observing their footage. Inductive thematic analysis of their responses indicated that BWC footage encouraged recruits to be active learners, helping them self-assess their performance and enriching their capacity to engage with expert feedback. Viewing BWC footage clarified areas for improvement, contextualized feedback, and enhanced recruits’ confidence in their performance. These findings provide strong support for the potential of BWCs to enhance training outcomes and lay the groundwork for future investigations to explore the effectiveness of BWC for this purpose via controlled systematic means.

The topic of police behavior, especially police use of force, has received considerable public scrutiny in recent years (e.g., Maguire et al., 2023). As a result, scholars and practitioners have identified the need to optimize police performance through effective training procedures (e.g., Bennell et al., 2021). Simulation training, which involves performing job-relevant tasks (e.g., use of force) in a controlled learning environment, is widely recognized as essential (Beinicke & Muff, 2019; Shipton, 2023), but it is important that the learning benefits of such exercises are optimized, for example through effective trainee feedback processes (Henderson et al., 2019; Winstone & Carless, 2019). The use of body-worn cameras (BWCs) in simulation training has considerable potential to enhance learning outcomes by enabling trainees to assess and reflect on their performance. However, despite the increasing utilization of BWCs by police agencies worldwide, the potential of this tool for enhancing learning outcomes in training has received limited consideration (e.g., Hyland, 2018). Gaining police trainee perspectives on the utility of this technology in this context is one important avenue of exploration, before proposing its adoption.

In the current study, we considered the potential of BWCs for enhancing the trainee feedback process by exploring 111 police recruits’ experiences and perspectives of watching their BWC footage of a simulated use-of-force training exercise and reflecting on their performance. Utilizing BWC video in training can offer a unique enhancement to existing methods, supporting efforts to improve police performance and ensure effective responses in high-stress scenarios. Gaining insights into the recruits’ perspectives is crucial for exploring these expanded applications of BWC technology.

Literature Review

The increasing use of BWCs in policing has been underpinned by several anticipated benefits for police and citizens. From a review of 70 empirical studies, Lum et al. (2019) concluded value in BWCs as an aid to evidence collection and report writing, and in reducing complaints against officers, including protecting officers against false or exaggerated complaints. However, the review found weak evidence that BWC use changes police behavior, summarizing that “BWCs may curb some of the worst police behaviors but have little impact otherwise” (Lum et al., 2019, p. 110). Furthermore, they highlighted that one of the most substantial contributions of BWCs in this regard will likely come through better exploration of how they can be used in police training.

Police learning can occur both on the job, where officers may receive feedback from supervisors and peers on their performance or behavior (Dahl et al., 2023), and in specific training environments. Willis (2022) canvassed views of 23 police officers in a small US police department through interviews about the use of BWCs, including for training. He found mixed support for BWCs as a training tool, but that BWC footage use was largely confined to postincident review of force and safety concerns in serious, and therefore rare, events, and that officers were reluctant for their footage to be scrutinized by other officers in this way. What is missing is a more systematic approach to the use of this technology within training environments. Specifically, there is a need to explore the utility of BWC in training exercises and whether an officer’s BWC footage can enhance the standard feedback process for evaluating and communicating that officer’s performance.

Simulation training is widely recognized as essential for skill development (Beinicke & Muff, 2019; Shipton, 2023), particularly for behavioral skills in critical incidents and the use of physical tactics/force. Simulation training methods emulate real-life contexts and enable trainees to practice the application of skills they have been taught in classroom-based contexts (Anderson et al., 2016), thereby promoting improved performance, particularly the execution of practical skills (Cook et al., 2013). Notably, such training has been established as effective in promoting improved performance under contexts of high stress (Low et al., 2021), specifically by giving trainees the opportunity to practice the task of interest under high physiological arousal, which in turn supports future performance under similar conditions (Anderson et al., 2016; Low et al., 2021; Nieuwenhuys & Oudejans, 2011). Accordingly, the need for police to receive high-quality simulation training under conditions of stress has been identified as a high priority to improve police performance (Bennell et al., 2021). While simulation training methods have been identified as an important component of police training and are used extensively worldwide, there are concerns that “instead of being used in a way to promote active and deeper learning, particularly as part of a reflective process, it is often applied in a mechanistic way that simply ticks off set behaviors” (Shipton, 2023, p. 29). In addition, Beinicke and Muff (2019) identified trainer feedback as one area needing attention to optimize simulation-based learning. However, limited research has considered how the feedback process can be designed in a way that optimizes the learning outcomes obtained.

In recent years, conceptualizations of feedback have shifted from being understood as a source of information received by a passive recipient to a process wherein learners have an active role (Carless & Boud, 2018; Winstone et al., 2017). In this new paradigm, the focus is on learners’ capacity to engage and interact with various sources of information to regulate their own learning and guide changes in future performance (Boud & Molloy, 2013). As such, the learner is platformed as an agent of their own learning, who actively constructs meaning using information gleaned from various external sources (e.g., expert feedback information) and internal sources (e.g., emotions elicited by personal performance) of feedback (Molloy & Boud, 2014). Accordingly, education research has shifted from a focus on specifying the characteristics necessary for educators to consider when providing information on student performance (e.g., how to balance positive and negative comments) to how to design curricula in a way that facilitates students’ own ability to effectively construct meaning and drive their own learning (Henderson et al., 2019). Thus, current education literature indicates that, rather than focusing on what educators need to do in providing feedback to trainees, we should instead consider how to design feedback procedures in a way that positions trainees to effectively construct meaning and understanding based on their experience.

Past research on higher education has established that, to promote learning, students need opportunities to develop an awareness of their own performance, including performance deficits, and an understanding of how they can improve and develop a plan to do so (Boud & Molloy, 2013; Nicol & Kushwah, 2023; Yan & Brown, 2017). BWCs have marked potential as a tool to enhance engagement in self-assessment and reflection, and thus enhance learning and future performance. This potential is based on the premise that BWC footage can provide a representation of personal performance and encourage active reflection, which studies show promotes trainees’ autonomy as learners (Hoo et al., 2022; Nicol & Kushwah, 2023). Indeed, BWC footage may facilitate engagement with self-assessment processes if it can position trainees to reflect on the degree to which their personal performance is aligned with performance goals, and how they can reduce the gap between desired and actual performance (Boud & Dawson, 2023; Sadler, 1989). It may be especially important to present learners with a representation of personal performance when simulation training elicits high physiological arousal, because trainees’ awareness of their personal performance is likely to be limited given the negative impact of high stress on memory (Marr et al., 2021), and the need for trainees to respond rapidly in these scenarios (Baldwin et al., 2022). As noted above, BWC footage can help trainees actively reflect on their performance and consider a path for improvement.

Preliminary support for the effectiveness of BWC footage as a feedback process for physical performance stems from the use of video feedback with high-performing athletes. A review by Pearson et al. (2023) provides evidence that technology-enabled representations of performance can be engaging feedback tools. Indeed, video feedback has been widely adopted in the sports domain to assist players to reflect on their performance, and assist coaches with the feedback process (e.g., O’Donoghue, 2006). Evidence indicates this practice confers multiple benefits, including fostering athletes’ awareness of areas in need of improvement (Francis & Jones, 2014; Groom & Cushion, 2005), enhancing procedural knowledge (Pearson et al., 2023), and, ultimately, supporting superior future performance (e.g., García-González et al., 2016; Gil-Arias et al., 2019).

In addition, in the policing domain, Sjöberg and Karp (2012) compared video-based debriefing with standard (non-video) debriefing after scenario sessions for a sample of nine police college participants (four in the video group and five in the non-video group). The article does not describe the form of video, but it is most likely that this was third-person view and not BWC. There was some evidence that video-debriefs improved ratings of performance and motivation in a subsequent scenario, and participants ranked the video as an important factor for reflecting on and developing their performance. However, the small sample size prevented statistical testing and the article highlighted the need for further research to explain the positive effects of video-debriefs.

Despite evidence pointing to the potential benefit of including BWC in the feedback process, to our knowledge only one study has explored the effectiveness of BWC as a training tool for police to date. Sixty-three Norwegian police students completed a stressful simulation training exercise with a partner (Phelps et al., 2016). Approximately, half of the students wore a BWC during the exercise and, afterward, those in the intervention group watched their footage with a partner and were asked about various facets of their performance. A few weeks later, the students completed a survey assessing their agreement with various statements relevant to their learning. Those in the intervention group were more likely than the control group to indicate that they were able to identify mistakes they previously thought were correct and had higher self-rated learning than the control group for decision-making and communication practices. When asked an open question about what they learned through the simulation exercise and how they could improve, the intervention group reported more instances of learning and areas for improvement.

The study by Phelps et al. (2016) offers preliminary evidence supporting the potential of BWCs as a training tool to enhance reflection and learning. However, the study focused on specific outcomes, such as decision-making, using a quantitative approach. Qualitative approaches would increase understanding of BWCs’ broader impact in the feedback process and their overall acceptability. To grasp the practical utility and feasibility of implementing this learning practice fully, it is essential to consider trainees’ personal reactions and feelings toward the incorporation of BWCs into learning activities (Kirkpatrick, 1959). Exploring trainees’ reactions and perceptions can also facilitate understanding of how activities foster various learning outcomes, as well as how (and whether) the activities promote engagement and intrinsic learning motivation (Hauer et al., 2011). Qualitative approaches are important to provide these insights to lay the groundwork for future studies, which could further investigate the utility of BWC footage via controlled systematic means.

In the current study, we aim to gain a comprehensive understanding of the potential utility of BWCs as a training tool to inform future research. A total of 111 police recruits participated in a use-of-force simulation exercise and subsequently reviewed their BWC footage. All trainees were asked to reflect on their experiences (in response to broad open-ended questions). Thematic analysis of the perspectives of these recruits provides insights into the utility and suitability of BWCs to enhance the learning experience of use-of-force simulation training and other similar feedback contexts.

Method

Sample

The sample comprised 111 Australian police recruits (85 male, 26 female) undergoing recruit training with the Queensland Police Service. Information on age was missing for one participant. For the rest (n = 110), age ranged from 19 to 57 years old (M = 29.43 years, SD = 7.34 years).

Data Collection

The study was approved by the Griffith University Human Research Ethics Committee (Ref: 2018/911) and by the Queensland Police Service Research Committee. Each participant (police recruit) was interviewed by a trained researcher between November 2021 and November 2022 at training events held at the Queensland Police Academy. Recruits were verbally briefed by the project team and provided information sheets and consent forms for voluntary participation. Consenting recruits were fitted with a BWC.

Each recruit underwent the same scenario at the academy as part of their Recruit Firearms Training Course. The recruits underwent the scenario individually but paired with a trainer role-playing their Field Training Officer (FTO). At the start of the scenario, the recruit received a safety briefing and brief description of the scenario by their instructor, followed by an introduction by the FTO (role player). The information suggested the recruit was to respond to a triggered alarm in an abandoned building. The recruit was tasked with leading a search of the building, which entailed clearing several rooms in low light conditions and eventuated in the sudden appearance of an armed offender who shot at the recruit. The recruit had to shoot the role-playing offender for the offender to fall to the ground. The recruit then had to call the incident in over their radio, at which point the scenario was ended by the instructor. The instructor assessed the recruit’s performance and provided verbal feedback during a one-on-one debrief immediately after the scenario.

Having completed this component of their training, the recruits were subsequently taken to a room on site at the academy for a one-on-one interview with a trained interviewer (part of the research team). The recruits were met by a member of the research team who showed them their BWC video before introducing a trained interviewer online on Microsoft Teams. Interviewers followed the same interview protocol. ¹ Responses to the following two open-ended interview questions were the subject of the present study: What was it like for you watching that video? (Elaborate); Did watching your video help you reflect on your performance at all? (If so) How?

Design

The participants were recruited as part of a larger study on interviewing after a critical incident, which included four experimental conditions (randomly assigned) manipulating the timing of the interview (same day vs delayed) and watching BWC footage prior to an interview (watching video vs not watching video). This group assignment was not relevant to the present study’s aim but participants in three of these conditions watched their BWC footage and are included in the present study.

Data Analysis

Inductive thematic analysis was used to explore themes in the participants’ responses. Prior to analysis, five transcripts were randomly selected and read by the two researchers involved in data analysis. The first and second authors read the transcripts, independently noting common themes, and met to engage in interpretive discussion. Similar themes were identified by both researchers. Subsequently, the first author performed a line-by-line analysis (reduction) of the transcripts, identifying statements that embodied similar concepts, as well as concepts within statements. At regular points throughout the analysis, the two researchers met to discuss emerging themes (Barbour, 2001). A considerable volume of themes emerged. In this study, we describe those relevant to BWCs as a training tool; any themes that were not connected to this topic are not considered further. Quotes are presented to connect emergent themes to the data, and these quotes have been edited to improve readability (e.g., to correct grammar) and remove potentially identifying information.

Findings

Two primary topics were evident: general impressions of watching BWC footage and watching BWC footage facilitates reflection on performance. General impressions were coded as positive, negative, and neutral, with the majority of the recruits expressing positive views. Comments on how the footage facilitates reflection were further distilled into two themes reflecting clarifying areas for improvement and enhancing confidence. These themes are presented below. The themes that emerged for each were highly similar across the experimental groups; therefore, responses were collapsed across groups unless otherwise stated.

General Impressions: Positive, Negative, and Neutral

The recruits’ impressions of watching their BWC footage were overwhelmingly positive. In response to the initial interview question, 87 recruits expressed positive remarks about their experience, 8 made negative remarks, and 16 had somewhat neutral opinions. Recruits with positive impressions clearly perceived the experience as beneficial: they typically indicated that watching the video was interesting, enjoyable, and that it helped their memory and/or helped them reflect on their performance.

It was really good for me to get a third person perspective of how I performed. I was really looking forward to getting the opportunity to view it back. I wish I could do that with all of my scenarios and assessments because in the moment you lose sight of what you did and how you did it. But to see it again through a body-worn camera—I think it’s very, very useful. (Participant 92)

Almost all recruits who had negative impressions of watching the footage were disappointed with their performance and did not enjoy watching those errors unfold.

I hated it. I knew what was coming and that I wasn’t happy when I did it. I knew I wasn’t going to be happy watching it. (Participant 61)

The negative impressions, therefore, were targeted toward the feelings that watching (and reflecting on) the footage induced for some recruits, particularly feelings of discomfort when personal performance was judged to be poor.

Recruits with neutral impressions mostly expressed a variation of “it was okay,” or did not have strong opinions because their BWC view was obscured (see below), which affected the degree to which details could be seen. Across response types, several recruits (n = 16) also expressed general discomfort with hearing their own voice and/or watching themselves.

A substantial minority of recruits commented on the quality of their footage (n = 32). Eighteen of these recruits expressed that their camera view was somewhat obscured. There was considerable range in the extent to which the footage was obscured: for some recruits, their own hand movements and positioning meant that the camera view was obscured at certain points, whereas for others, their view was consistently obscured to a high degree due to poor placement of the camera or extreme darkness (this viewpoint constituted a small proportion of recruits, n = 6). Conversely, 12 recruits were surprised by the high quality of the footage and indicated that it provided greater vision of the scenario than they had at the time because it provided a brighter image.

Watching BWC Footage Facilitates Reflection on Performance

When the recruits were asked whether watching their BWC footage helped them reflect on performance, their responses fell into three main categories. The majority of the recruits expressed that the footage helped clarify areas for improvement (n = 95) and enhanced confidence in their performance (n = 34). ² A handful of recruits stated that watching their footage did not help them reflect on their performance (n = 7). These recruits typically expressed that they were disappointed with their performance and already knew what they did wrong, or that they could not view their actions because their camera was obscured (noted above). The various ways that watching BWC footage helped clarify areas for improvement and enhance confidence in their performance are described below.

Clarifying Areas for Improvement

Watching BWC footage clarified awareness of aspects of performance that needed improvement. For example, communication was identified as an area in need of improvement for many (n = 19). The recruits commonly reflected on how they were not aware of their verbatim speech or tone of voice until they watched their BWC footage: their footage highlighted the need to communicate more clearly and/or be more assertive in their tone.

I need to be more clear in how I communicate. That’s the main thing I’ll take away. I just realized how quiet I am. In my head I’m really loud—I’m like, police presence, and I’m yelling. But in the video I have a little squeaky voice—not loud at all. (Participant 85)

Another area needing improvement that was identified was clearing rooms (n = 16), as recruits expressed awareness of the need to be more thorough in their search process or to position themselves differently when conducting the search.

Watching BWC footage improved the recruits’ clarity on errors in connection to specific aspects of the event. The most common categories identified as needing improvement were related to recruits’ technical skills in responding to the offender, such as incorrect use of their firearm (n = 27). Responses in this category generally referred to incorrect use of the weapon-mounted flashlight, slow reaction time to fire, or responding to stoppages incorrectly. The recruits also commonly noted errors with respect to positioning and movement (n = 21), and these mostly involved mistakes in moving to cover or positioning themselves under cover (n = 19).

It was good to see what I did and what I did wrong. At the time, obviously, under the pressure of it, it’s not going to be perfect, but it’s good to watch back and see those little one percenters that you can fix up—for me, it was the barricade. Once I’d come back to cover, I still had my leg outside that cover, which is hard to recognize when you’re under that stress. But it might be something that next time I take into account. (Participant 150)

Awareness of errors prior to watching the footage varied. Some recruits stated that watching their footage led to identification of errors they were not previously aware of, whereas others indicated that they were aware of their errors prior to watching the video. Recruits who were previously aware of their errors noted that the footage provided greater clarity on the nature of their errors and helped them consider alternate approaches that would have been more appropriate. The recruits appeared highly motivated to correct errors that they observed in the footage. For example, several recruits referred to how there may have been significant consequences to their errors had the situation unfolded in the field (e.g., for the safety of themselves and their partner).

Taking a step back

The nature of responses indicated that recruits could identify and reflect on errors more clearly by watching their performance in hindsight. Watching the footage enabled them to take a step back and see how the situation unfolded rather than relying on their memory of what happened. For example, several recruits referred to how details associated with responding to the offender unfolded very rapidly, so it was helpful to watch the footage to better understand how they reacted. Recruits also highlighted that the footage demonstrated how they reacted under stressful situations, and those who were disappointed with their performance commonly referred to tangible steps they could take to improve (e.g., working on their breathing). It was clear that recruits could be more mindful of their performance when they were no longer immersed in the scenario under stressful conditions with a goal of responding to a potential threat.

It was good to see like a second viewpoint of yourself—when you don’t have the adrenaline running through you. More of just like a calm sort of self—like a bystander watching a movie. You don’t have any adrenaline or anxiety. You’re just watching and can pick it apart a little bit more. (Participant 192)

A few recruits (n = 4) also mentioned that it was helpful to watch their performance after learning more content at the academy, because they were more aware of alternate ways of approaching the scenario, such as how to clear rooms or communicate with their partner more clearly.

Contextualizing feedback

Some recruits referred to how BWC footage helped to clarify areas for improvement because it contextualized feedback they had received from their instructor (n = 16). Those who expressed this view often noted that they focused attention on aspects of performance they had received feedback on while watching their BWC footage.

I could see in the video that I barricaded the wrong way. That’s one thing my facilitator gave me feedback on after the scenario, so coming into the room to watch the video, I was thinking, ah, I’m going to try and notice the things that I didn’t do so well on. It’s a great mechanism of correction and improvement, 100 per cent. (Participant 202)

Observing those errors unfold, as opposed to just being told about them from an instructor, was perceived as helpful, as it aided realization and understanding. One participant suggested that feedback should be given simultaneously with watching the BWC footage.

It’s easy for an instructor to say, oh when you walked in you stood here and fired there, but people can’t always understand that. If people are actually seeing it on the camera, they can then go, right, I understand what you mean. (Participant 137)

Indeed, some recruits acknowledged that they were initially skeptical of the feedback they had received but the footage verified its accuracy, which (in turn) enhanced their motivation to improve. Conversely, three recruits mentioned that watching their footage made them believe that the feedback they had received was incorrect or exaggerated relative to their actual performance.

Enhancing Confidence in Performance

Finally, several recruits perceived the BWC footage as beneficial because it helped to highlight the appropriateness of their actions (n = 13). Recruits who expressed this view indicated that after the simulation exercise, they experienced negative emotions toward their performance, and were overcritical of themselves. Yet recruits often commented that their feelings and thoughts about their performance changed after watching their BWC footage, because it indicated that their performance was better than they recalled from memory alone.

Watching it over, I’m actually kind of proud of myself. I did a lot better than what I thought I did. I had more control than I thought I had. (Participant 208)

I really liked [watching the footage] because it provided closure. Even in the week since I’ve done it, I’ve been thinking oh, did I do this correctly? Did I shoot immediately or did I just startle and walk away to the wall? It’s nice being able to watch it and say okay, so I did do this and this. (Participant 65)

The beneficial effects of watching BWC footage on self-confidence also extended to recruits who made errors during the scenario, because it showed that their performance was strong in other aspects of the event. Confirmation from the video that they had performed correctly enhanced their confidence in their ability to respond appropriately to similar situations in the field.

When I watched my video, I saw that I am able to react the way I need to react in that situation, and that was really good for me because you’ve got to be confident in your abilities. You’ve got to go out there and do what you need to do and know that you’re not going to freeze up. (Participant 139)

Discussion

Police performance, especially use of force, is a topic that has received considerable public scrutiny. Given the focus on performance, and the importance of police responding effectively and appropriately to high-risk situations, there is a clear need to ensure that police receive effective training. In the current study, we explored the potential of BWCs to enhance learning outcomes following simulation training. The overarching finding was the strong potential for BWCs as a tool in the feedback process. In particular, the findings pointed to how BWC footage helped position recruits as active learners. Recruits appeared to engage with the footage to self-assess their performance and interact with expert feedback. In the following section, we discuss these learning benefits in more detail, and consider how these findings clarify directions for future research.

First, there was clear evidence of the acceptability of BWCs as a tool in the feedback process to promote learning. Most of the recruits expressed positive opinions on the use of this tool as a mechanism for reflecting on performance. Moreover, many recruits indicated that, even when they made mistakes, they also observed strengths in their performance. This positive perception of BWC footage in the feedback process is noteworthy, given that the affective impact of feedback can influence both learners’ motivation to improve and their ability to use that specific feedback information constructively (Molloy et al., 2019; Pitt & Norton, 2017; Poulos & Mahony, 2008; Rowe, 2017; Ryan & Henderson, 2018; Sargeant et al., 2008). Indeed, recruits who expressed positive opinions of watching their BWC footage seemed to engage with the feedback information it provided, and appeared highly motivated to correct the errors they did observe, promoting improved performance (Malecka & Boud, 2023).

Conversely, the few recruits who expressed negative opinions of BWCs as a tool in the feedback process perceived their performance as very poor and noted that they did not enjoy rewatching their errors unfold. It is likely that these recruits experienced a negative affective state that was heightened to such a degree that they were unable to process and apply the feedback information contained in the BWC footage in constructive ways (Molloy et al., 2019). Rather than being an innate quality of a particular feedback source, the emotional impact of feedback is highly driven by learner characteristics, such as self-regulatory abilities (Ibarra-Sáiz et al., 2020; Rowe, 2017, see also Molloy et al., 2020). Thus, a source of feedback information (i.e., BWCs) is unlikely to have a consistent emotional impact for all trainees (Molloy et al., 2012). However, specific feedback processes do influence the general impact of feedback, and the likelihood that the information will be used constructively (Boud & Dawson, 2023; Butler, 1988; Molloy et al., 2012; Nicol & Kushwah, 2023). Thus, the fact that most recruits expressed positive perceptions of their experience using BWC footage and appeared to be motivated to use the feedback information constructively to improve performance highlights the potential value of using this tool to support learning.

The feedback information provided through BWC footage appeared to augment the instructor feedback to promote more accurate self-assessments, as it provided an additional source of information about recruits’ actual performance, which they could use to compare with their desired performance (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). Being confronted with a representation of their personal performance seemed to enhance their awareness of the discrepancy between their actual and ideal performance, which is an important component of effective feedback processes (Molloy & Boud, 2014; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006; Sadler, 1989). The notion that BWC footage heightened awareness in this way is aligned with the investigation of Phelps et al. (2016), who found that recruits were able to list more areas in need of improvement, and could list more ways that their performance could be modified when they had the opportunity to review their BWC footage of a simulated training event (see also, Carson, 2008; Groom et al., 2011). Thus, BWC footage appears to promote more accurate understanding of the discrepancy between actual and desired performance.

Indeed, in our study, the recruits expressed to varying degrees that they were unaware of the nature of their performance prior to watching the footage. Research across a range of domains demonstrates that people often lack awareness of personal performance deficits or fail to remember them accurately (Ibarra-Sáiz et al., 2020; Molloy et al., 2012; Wright et al., 2007). In the current study, recruits expressed that many gaps in their awareness were connected to their own actions surrounding the appearance of the offender. This point in the exercise is likely to have elicited high levels of physiological stress (Arble et al., 2019) and required a rapid response from recruits. These factors likely impacted recruits’ awareness and memory of their own performance, given the negative impact of high stress on memory (Marr et al., 2021) and the fact that trainees typically respond to situations of high threat based on intuition rather than systematic processing (Baldwin et al., 2022). Thus, BWC footage appears particularly helpful for promoting more realistic self-assessments of performance during critical (stressful) moments of simulation training (i.e., the appearance of the offender).

Finally, BWC footage appeared to influence recruits’ engagement with expert feedback. Despite the focus on trainees as agents of their own learning in education research, the need for expert feedback continues to be indicated as an important component of the learning process (Molloy et al., 2012; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006), including the effectiveness of scenario-based training (Beinicke & Muff, 2019). Expert feedback can assist in helping to identify errors in performance, conceptualizations of goal performance, how to close the gap between the two, and, in turn, improve future performance (Boud & Molloy, 2013; Molloy et al., 2012; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). Despite the importance of expert feedback in the learning process, problems with this practice have been widely acknowledged (e.g., Orrell, 2006; Winstone et al., 2021), and concerns have been voiced that expert feedback exerts little or no effect (e.g., Price et al., 2010). The limited influence of expert feedback, however, has primarily been attributed to the fact that it is often administrated in paternalistic ways to a learner who is treated as a passive recipient (Winstone & Carless, 2019; Winstone et al., 2021). To beneficially impact performance, learners need to actively engage with expert feedback to generate their own understanding of the information, how it relates to their current and ideal performance, and how they can improve (Boud & Molloy, 2013; Johnson et al., 2016).

In the current study, even though expert feedback was provided to recruits separately from watching their BWC footage, recruits appeared to engage with the information provided by their expert instructor as they watched their footage: for many recruits, watching the footage appeared to enhance their understanding of the nature and credibility of the expert feedback. The notion that recruits were actively engaged with the expert feedback is also highlighted by the fact that some recruits indicated that the expert feedback was inconsistent with their BWC footage and perceived the expert feedback as inaccurate. Hence, watching BWC footage appears to support recruits in synthesizing and shaping meaning from expert feedback about their personal performance, supporting self-evaluation and, thus, future performance (Boud & Molloy, 2013). BWC footage could therefore provide several benefits if used by instructors when delivering their expert feedback. Through these instructor-guided reviews, the video may enhance the credibility of instructor feedback, as well as assist instructors to explain their feedback, by providing evidence of the behavior under discussion. In addition, the presence of an instructor while trainees view their video could reduce the discomfort experienced by some, where instructors help the recruit to reflect on alternative approaches for future performance and highlight positive aspects of performance captured by the video.

We examined the potential for BWCs as a training tool by exploring recruits’ reactions and perceptions; however, it is important that future research investigates the impact of BWC footage via controlled systematic investigations. The findings of our study provide insight into considerations for future research, including the outcomes that should be measured. These outcomes include whether the addition of BWCs in the feedback process enhances recruits’ awareness of personal performance, their application of expert feedback, motivation to improve performance, and, ultimately, their future performance. Quantitative measures of these aspects, paired with the presence of a control group in which participants do not watch their BWC footage, would provide more systematic evidence of the benefits of BWCs in this context.

This study also provides insight into additional directions for future research, namely the optimal design for the utilization of BWCs as a tool in the feedback process. For instance, in the current study, recruits indicated that BWCs helped them to reflect on their performance. The inclusion of a structured self-reflection guide may further support this self-reflection and assessment process (e.g., see Hoo et al., 2022). The findings also point to the value of considering individual differences in future investigations. For instance, when recruits perform poorly, viewing BWC footage may not confer benefits to learning because rewatching performance may elicit a heightened negative state, preventing them from using that information constructively (Nicol & Kushwah, 2023; Rowe, 2017), and could even diminish motivation and self-efficacy (Craven et al., 1991). Thus, future research should consider which individual differences (if any) moderate the relationship between the impact of BWC footage and various learning outcomes.

It should also be noted that a minority of recruits commented that the quality of their BWC footage reduced its utility for their learning. The limitations of the technology need to be recognized in that the visual quality of the footage can be impacted by, for example, camera placement, angle, and lighting conditions. Aside from possible visual obstruction, the viewing angle of the BWC prioritizes the wearer’s (recruit’s) perspective, primarily capturing details in front of the camera. This first-person perspective might be more immersive (Denisova & Cairns, 2015) and aid reflection on the wearer’s experience, general movements or others’ reactions to the wearer captured on camera. However, this perspective could limit reflection on other aspects, such as more specific body movements of the wearer that are not captured, or how the wearer’s actions look from other perspectives. These issues need to be considered when determining the viability of using BWC footage for feedback and self-reflection. Further research might explore potential differences in learning benefits of first-person camera (BWC) compared to third-person camera (closed-circuit television [CCTV]) in a training environment.

Finally, this study has focused on feedback given in the context of simulation training for a stressful armed encounter. Future research could explore the utility of BWC footage for other types of training or encounters. Furthermore, with BWCs increasingly used in the field, there are opportunities for BWC footage to be used to provide feedback to officers on their real recorded performance in the field, such as interactions with members of the public. Notwithstanding the limitations noted above, further research could explore the role of BWC in facilitating these more ad hoc contexts for feedback, outside of the training academy environment, as well as how best to support opportunities for officers to self-review and reflect routinely on their own footage. Viewing footage of real encounters with citizens might facilitate not only skill building but also officers’ recognition of how their actions are being perceived by, and impacting, those with whom they interact. Indeed, Todak (2019) proposed that exemplar BWC footage of effective and ineffective tactics in the field could underpin the design of deescalation training programs. Ongoing incorporation of BWC footage into training program design in this way would assist with closing the loop between training and practice.

Conclusion

It is essential that police are equipped with high-quality training. Although simulation training has been identified as an essential activity to prepare officers to respond well, the potential effectiveness of these training interventions is likely to be maximized by the implementation of effective feedback processes. In the current study, we explored whether the utilization of BWCs has the potential to enhance learning outcomes by exploring recruits’ perspectives on this topic. The results strongly indicate the potential benefit of BWCs as a training tool. Indeed, the nature of the responses suggested that the recruits actively engaged with the feedback information that BWCs provided and appeared highly motivated to use that information to improve their performance.

In practice, where possible, it is likely that using BWC footage as an aid to deliver expert feedback may provide several benefits. The footage may provide more credibility to instructor feedback, as well as assist instructors to explain their feedback, by providing evidence of the behavior under discussion. In addition, the presence of an instructor while trainees view their footage could assist alleviate the discomfort experienced by some, helping to focus the trainee to reflect on alternative approaches for future performance and highlighting positive aspects of performance. These qualitative findings should be complemented with controlled systematic investigations on the impact of BWCs on learning outcomes. Such research is important to ensure that the police are optimally prepared to respond to high-risk situations should they unfold.