BervelingJ. (2020). “My God, here is the skull of a murderer!”: Physical appearance and violent crime. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 30, 141–154.
2.
BesharaC. J. (2010). Moral hospitals, addled brains and cranial conundrums: Phrenological rationalisations of the criminal mind in antebellum America. Australasian Journal of American Studies, 29, 36–60.
3.
BransonS. (2017). Phrenology and the science of race in antebellum America. Early American Studies, 15, 164–193.
4.
CrawfordK. (2021). Time to regulate AI that interprets human emotions. Nature, 592, 167.
5.
FredricksonG. M. (2002). Racism: A short history. Princeton University Press.
6.
HungerfordE. (1930). Poe and phrenology. American Literature, 2, 209–31.
7.
LinklaterA. (2016). Violence and civilization in the western states-systems. Cambridge University Press.
8.
MilesL. (1836). Phrenology and the moral influence of phrenology: Arranged for general study, and the purposes of education, from the first published works of Gall and Spurzheim, to the latest discoveries of the present period. Carey, Lea & Blanchard.
9.
MorinR. (2014). Phrenology and crime. In MillerJ. M. (Ed.), The encyclopedia of theoretical criminology (pp. 612–616). John Wiley & Sons.
10.
ParssinenT. M. (1974). Popular science and society: The phrenology movement in early Victorian Britain. Journal of Social History, 8, 1–20.
11.
PoeE. A. (1836). Phrenology. Southern Literary Messenger, 2, 286–287.
12.
PoskettJ. (2019). Materials of the mind: Phrenology, race, and the global history of science. The University of Chicago Press.
13.
RafterN.PosickC.RocqueM. (2016). The criminal brain: Understanding biological theories of crime. New York University Press.
14.
RaineA. (2014). The anatomy of violence: The biological roots of crime. Vintage.
15.
RollinsO. (2021). Conviction: The making and unmaking of the violent brain. Stanford University Press.
16.
RoseN.Abi-RachedJ. M. (2013). Neuro: The new brain sciences and the management of the mind. Princeton University Press.
17.
SavitzL.TurnerS. H.DickmanT. (1977). The origin of scientific criminology: Franz Joseph Gall as the first criminologist. In MeierR. F. (Ed.), Theory in criminology: Contemporary views (pp. 41–56). SAGE Publications.
18.
TappanP. W. (1947). Who is the criminal?American Sociological Review, 12, 96–102.
19.
WalkerR. (2021). Facing race: Popular science and Black intellectual thought in antebellum America. Early American Studies, 19, 601–640.
20.
WolfgangM. E. (1961). Pioneers in criminology: Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909). The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 52, 361–391.
21.
YoungR. M. (1990). Mind, brain, and adaptation in the nineteenth century: Cerebral localization and its biological context from Gall to Ferrier. Oxford University Press.