Restricted accessReview articleFirst published online 2020-12
Are Psychological Treatments for Adults With Histories of Violent Offending Associated With Change in Dynamic Risk Factors? A Meta-Analysis of Intermediate Treatment Outcomes
This meta-analysis examined whether psychological treatments delivered to adults with histories of violent offending in correctional and forensic mental health settings were related to change in dynamic risk factors. Twenty-two controlled studies (86% comprised male samples) were identified via a comprehensive search. Treatments had a significant effect overall, with small to moderate improvements in trait anger, social problem solving, impulsivity, and general social skill. The treatment effect for antisocial cognitions was nonsignificant. There were a small number of significant moderators, which provide preliminary indications of treatment features that may promote greater change. However, small sample sizes and difficulties disentangling moderating effects preclude drawing firm conclusions. While these results are useful and promising, the field remains limited by few high-quality outcome studies, disparate outcome/measure selection, inconsistent/incomplete reporting of evaluations, and limited information about whether change in dynamic risk factors predicts reductions in recidivism. Suggestions for advancing the field are provided.
AndrewsD. A.BontaJ. (2014). The psychology of criminal conduct (5th ed.). Routledge.
2.
AndrewsD. A.GuzzoL.RaynorP.RoweR. C.RettingerL. J.BrewsA.WormithJ. S. (2012). Are the major risk/need factors predictive of both female and male reoffending? A test with the eight domains of the level of service/case management inventory. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 56(1), 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X10395716
3.
*Barto LynchJ. A. (1995). The use of aggression replacement training with adult offenders: A program for violent and aggressive inmates [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Spalding University.
4.
BorensteinM. (2009). Effect sizes for continuous data. In CooperH.HedgesL. V.ValentineJ. C. (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis and meta analysis (pp. 279–293). Russell Sage Foundation.
5.
BorensteinM.HigginsJ. P. T.HedgesL. V.RothsteinH. R. (2017). Basics of meta-analysis: I2 is not an absolute measure of heterogeneity. Research Synthesis Methods, 8(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1230
6.
*BowesN.McMurranM.WilliamsB.DavidS.ZammitI. (2012). Treating alcohol-related violence: Intermediate outcomes in a feasibility study for a randomized controlled trial in prisons. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(3), 333–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854811433759
7.
BurlingameG. M.McClendonD. T.AlonsoJ. (2011). Cohesion in group therapy. Psychotherapy, 48(1), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022063
8.
CarrollJ. (2013). Trait anger. In GellmanM. D.TurnerJ. R. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine (pp. 1987–1989). Springer.
9.
ChittyC. (2005). The impact of corrections on re-offending: Conclusions and the way forward. In HarperG.ChittyC. (Eds.), Theimpact of corrections on re-offending: A review of “whatworks” (pp. 75–82). Home Office.
10.
*ClarkeA. Y.CullenA. E.WalwynR.FahyT. (2010). A quasi-experimental pilot study of the Reasoning and Rehabilitation programme with mentally disordered offenders. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 21(4), 490–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478994090323639
11.
*CullenA. E.ClarkeA. Y.KuipersE.HodginsS.DeanK.FahyT. (2012). A multi-site randomized controlled trial of a cognitive skills programme for male mentally disordered offenders: Social-cognitive outcomes. Psychological Medicine, 42(3), 557–569. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711001553
12.
*DaffernM.SimpsonK.AinslieH.ChuS. (2017). The impact of an intensive inpatient violent offender treatment programme on intermediary treatment targets, violence risk and aggressive behaviour in a sample of mentally disordered offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 29(2), 163–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2017.1352014
13.
*DavidsonK. M.TyrerP.TataP.CookeD.GumleyA.FordI.WalkerA.BezlyakV.SeivewrightH.RobertsonH.CrawfordM. J. (2009). Cognitive behaviour therapy for violent men with antisocial personality disorder in the community: An exploratory randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 39(4), 569–577. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291708004066
14.
DekovićM.SlagtM. I.AsscherJ. J.BoendermakerL.EichelsheimV. I.PrinzieP. (2011). Effects of early prevention programs on adult criminal offending: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(4), 532–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.003
15.
De Vries RobbéM.de VogelV.DouglasK. S.NijmanH. I. (2015). Changes in dynamic risk and protective factors for violence during inpatient forensic psychiatric treatment: Predicting reductions in post-discharge community recidivism. Law and Human Behavior, 39(1), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000089
16.
DouglasK. S.SkeemJ. L. (2005). Violence risk assessment: Getting specific about being dynamic. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11(3), 347–383. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.11.3.347
17.
*DoyleM.KhannaT.LennoxC.ShawJ.HayesA.TaylorJ.RobertsA.DolanM. (2013). The effectiveness of an enhanced thinking skills programme in offenders with antisocial personality traits. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 24(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2012.752519
18.
*DoyleM.TarrierN.ShawJ.DunnG.DolanM. (2016). Exploratory trial of schema-focussed therapy in a forensic personality disordered population. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 27(2), 232–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2015.1107119
19.
D’ZurillaT. J.NezuA. M. (1990). Development and preliminary evaluation of the Social Problem-Solving Inventory. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2(2), 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.2.2.156
20.
*EvershedS.TennantA.BoomerD.ReesA.BarkhamM.WatsonA. (2003). Practice-based outcomes of dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) targeting anger and violence, with male forensic patients: A pragmatic and non-contemporaneous comparison. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 13(3), 198–213. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.542
21.
FalkO.WalliniusM.LundströmS.FrisellT.AnckarsäterH.KerekesN. (2014). The 1% of the population accountable for 63% of all violent crime convictions. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49(4), 559–571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-013-0783-y
22.
FleissJ. L. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions (2nd ed.). John Wiley.
23.
*ForbesM. R. (1990). The effects of prosocial skills training on anger management of aggressive adult inmates [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Indiana State University.
24.
FriendshipC.StreetR.CannJ.HarperG. (2005). Introduction: The policy context and assessing the evidence. In HarperG.ChittyC. (Eds.), The impact of corrections on re-offending: A review of “what work” (pp. 1–16). Home Office.
25.
FuR.GartlehnerG.GrantM.ShamilyanT.SedrakayanA.WiltT. J.GriffithL.OremusM.RainaP.IsmailaA.SantaguidaP.LauJ.TrikalinosT. A. (2010). Conducting quantitative synthesis when comparing medical interventions: AHRQ and the effective health care program. In SlutskyJ.AtkinsD.ChangS.Collins SharpB. A. (Eds.), Methods guide for comparative effectiveness reviews (pp. 1–18). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
26.
GannonT. A.OlverM. E.MallionJ. S.JamesM. (2019). Does specialized psychological treatment for offending reduce recidivism? A meta-analysis examining staff and program variables as predictors of treatment effectiveness. Clinical Psychology Review, 73, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101752
27.
GannonT. A.WardT. (2014). Where has all the psychology gone? A critical review of evidence-based psychological practice in correctional settings. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 435–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.06.006
GilbertF.DaffernM. (2010). Integrating contemporary aggression theory with violent offender treatment: How thoroughly do interventions target violent behavior?Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(3), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.11.003
30.
GleserL. J.OlkinI. (1994). Stochastically dependent effect sizes. In CooperH.HedgesL. V.ValentineJ. C. (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 339–356). Russell Sage Foundation.
31.
*HeseltineK.HowellsK.DayA. (2010). Brief anger interventions with offenders may be ineffective: A replication and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(3), 246–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.10.005
32.
HigginsJ. P. T.AltmanD. G.SterneJ. A. C. (2011). Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In HigginsJ. P. T.GreenS. (Eds.), Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions version 5.1.0 (pp. 1–73). The Cochrane Collaboration.
33.
HigginsJ. P. T.ThompsonS. G.DeeksJ. J.AltmanD. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. British Medical Journal, 327(6), 557–560. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557
34.
HigleyC. A.LloydC. D.SerinR. (2019). Age and motivation can be specific responsivity features that moderate the relationship between risk and rehabilitation outcome. Law and Human Behavior, 43(6), 558–567. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000348
35.
*HornsveldR. H. J.NijmanH. L. I. (2005). Evaluation of a cognitive-behavioral program for chronically psychotic forensic inpatients. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 28(3), 246–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2004.09.004
36.
*HowellsK.DayA.BubnerS.JaunceyS.ParkerA.WilliamsonP.HeseltineK. (2001). An evaluation of anger management programs with violent offenders in two Australian states. Forensic and Applied Psychology Research Group, University of South Australia.
37.
*HowellsK.DayA.WilliamsonP.BubnerS.JaunceyS.ParkerA.HeseltineK. (2005). Brief anger management programs with offenders: Outcomes and predictors of change. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 16(2), 296–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940500096099
38.
JolliffeD.FarringtonD. P. (2007). A systematic review of the national and international evidence on the effectiveness of interventions with violent offenders. Ministry of Justice.
39.
*JotangiaA.Rees-JonesA.GudjonssonG. H.YoungS. (2015). A multi-site controlled trial of the R&R2MHP cognitive skills program for mentally disordered female offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 59(5), 539–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X13512092
40.
JuarezT.HowardM. (2018). Assessing offender change over treatment: The influence of treatment context on self-reported antisocial attitudes. Corrections Research Evaluation and Statistics, NSW Government.
*KubiakS. P.KimW. J.FedockG.BybeeD. (2015). Testing a violence-prevention intervention for incarcerated women using a randomized control trial. Research on Social Work Practice, 25(3), 334–348. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731514534300
43.
LewisK.OlverM. E.WongS. C. P. (2013). The violence risk scale: Predictive validity and linking changes in risk with violent recidivism in a sample of high-risk offenders with psychopathic traits. Assessment, 20(2), 150–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191112441242
44.
MoherD.LiberatiA.TetzlaffJ.AltmanD. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 15(4), 264–269. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
45.
MorganR. D.FloraD. B.KronerD. G.MillsJ. F.VargheseF.SteffanJ. S. (2012). Treating offenders with mental illness: A research synthesis. Law and Human Behavior, 36(1), 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093964
46.
MorrisS. B. (2008). Estimating effect sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs. Organizational Research Methods, 11(2), 364–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428106291059
47.
*NapolitanoS. (1992). Evaluation of prison anger control training (pact): A group treatment program for incarcerated murderers and violent offenders [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. California School of Professional Psychology.
48.
OlverM. E.KingstonD. A.NicholaichukT. P.WongS. C. P. (2014). A psychometric examination of treatment change in a multisite sample of treated Canadian federal sexual offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 38(6), 554–559. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000086
PapaliaN.SpivakB.DaffernM.OgloffJ. R. P. (2019). A meta-analytic review of the efficacy of psychological treatments for violent offenders in correctional and forensic mental health settings. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 26(2), Article e122982. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12282
51.
PolaschekD. L.CollieR. M. (2004). Rehabilitating serious violent adult offenders: An empirical and theoretical stocktake. Psychology, Crime & Law, 10(3), 321–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160410001662807
52.
PolaschekD. L. L. (2006). Violent offender programmes: Concept, theory, and practice. In HollinC. R.PalmerE. J. (Eds.), Offending behaviour programmes: Development, application and controversies (pp. 113–154). John Wiley.
53.
PolaschekD. L. L. (2019). Treatment outcome evaluations: How do we know what works? In PolaschekD. L. L.DayA.HollinC. R. (Eds.), Handbook of correctional psychology (pp. 410–426). John Wiley.
54.
R Core Team. (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
55.
*Rees-JonesA.GudjonssonG.YoungS. (2012). A multi-site controlled trial of a cognitive skills program for mentally disordered offenders. BMC Psychiatry, 12(1), Article 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-12-44
RossJ.QuayleE.NewmanE.TanseyL. (2013). The impact of psychological therapies on violent behaviour in clinical and forensic settings: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(6), 761–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2013.09.001
58.
*SerinR. C.GobeilR.PrestonD. L. (2009). Evaluation of the persistently violent offender treatment program. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 53(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X07313985
59.
ShermanL. W.GottfredsonD. C.MackenzieD. L.EckJ.ReuterP.BushwayS. D. (1998). Preventing crime: What works, what doesn’t, what’s promising. National Institute of Justice.
60.
SkeemJ. L.MonahanJ.LowenkampC. (2016). Gender, risk assessment, and sanctioning: The cost of treating women like men. Law and Human Behavior, 40(5), 580–593. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000206
61.
SkeemJ. L.WinterE.KennealyP. J.LoudenJ. E.TatarJ. R.2nd, . (2014). Offenders with mental illness have criminogenic needs, too: Toward recidivism reduction. Law and Human Behavior, 38(3), 212–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000054
62.
SturgeG. (2018). UK prison population statistics. House of Commons Library.
63.
*TarrierN.DolanM.DoyleM.DunnG.ShawJ.BlackburnR. (2010). Exploratory randomised control trial of schema modal therapy in the Personality Disorder Service at Ashworth Hospital. Ministry of Justice.
64.
TyrerP.NurU.CrawfordM.KarlsenS.MacLeanC.RaoB.JohnsonT. (2005). The Social Functioning Questionnaire: A rapid and robust measure of perceived functioning. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 51(3), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764005057391
65.
ViechtbauerW. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metaphor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v036.i03
66.
VöllmB. A.EdworthyR.HubandN.TalbotE.MajidS.HolleyJ.FurtadoV.WeaverT.McDonaldR.DugganC. (2018). Characteristics and pathways of long-stay patients in high and medium secure settings in England: A secondary publication from a large mixed-methods study. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, Article 140. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00140
67.
*WattB. D.HowellsK. (1999). Skills training for aggression control: Evaluation of an anger management programme for violent offenders. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 4(2), 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532599167914
68.
YesbergJ. A.PolaschekD. L. L. (2019). How does offender rehabilitation actually work? Exploring mechanisms of change in high-risk treated parolees. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 63(15–16), 2672–2692. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X19856221
69.
*YipC.-Y.GudjonssonG. H.PerkinsD.DoidgeA.HopkinG.YoungS. (2013). A non-randomised controlled trial of the R&R2MHP cognitive skills program in high risk male offenders with severe mental illness. BMC Psychiatry, 13, Article 267. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-267
70.
*YoungS.ChickK.GudjonssonG. (2010). A preliminary evaluation of reasoning and rehabilitation 2 in mentally disordered offenders (RR2M) across two secure forensic settings in the United Kingdom. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 21(3), 336–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940903513203
71.
*YoungS.HopkinG.PerkinsD.FarrC.DoidgeA.GudjonssonG. (2013). A controlled trial of a cognitive skills program for personality-disordered offenders. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17(7), 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711430333
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
