Specialty mental health probation caseloads have shown promise in reducing recidivism for justice-involved people with mental illness. However, assignment to these caseloads may be stigmatizing due to labeling effects. We examined (1) whether assignment to specialty probation versus traditional probation is associated with greater internalized stigma among clients and (2) whether probation officers are the source of some of this stigmatization. As part of a multisite longitudinal study, 138 specialty probation clients and 148 similar clients from traditional probation rated their internalized stigma of mental illness, and officers rated their attitudes toward each of their supervisees. Specialty probation clients experienced more internalized stigma (d = .61) than traditional clients. Although both specialty and traditional officers held stigmatizing attitudes toward clients, only traditional officers’ attitudes were associated with clients’ internalized stigma. Probation officers from both types of agency may benefit from antistigma interventions to effectively work with clients with mental illness.
AngermeyerM. C.MatschingerH. (1995). Violent attacks on public figures by persons suffering from psychiatric disorders: Their effects on the social distance towards the mentally ill. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 245, 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02193089
2.
AngermeyerM. C.MatschingerH. (2005). Labeling—stereotype—discrimination. An investigation of the stigma process. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40, 391–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-005-0903-4
3.
BahoraM.HanafiS.ChienV. H.ComptonM. T. (2008). Preliminary evidence of effects of crisis intervention team training on self-efficacy and social distance. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 35, 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-007-0153-8
4.
BarlowD. H. (2010). Negative effects from psychological treatments: A perspective. American Psychologist, 65, 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015643
5.
BoydJ. E.AdlerE. P.OtilingamP. G.PetersT. (2014). Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness (ISMI) Scale: A multinational review. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55, 221–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.06.005
6.
Boyd RitsherJ.OtilingamP. G.GrajalesM. (2003). Internalized stigma of mental illness: Psychometric properties of a new measure. Psychiatry Research, 121, 31–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2003.08.008
7.
CloyesK.WongB.LatimerS.AbarcaJ. (2009). Time to prison return for offenders with serious mental illness released from prison. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37, 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809354370
8.
CorriganP. W.CooperA. E. (2005). Mental illness and dangerousness: Fact or misperception, and implications for stigma. In CorriganP. W. (Ed.), On the stigma of mental illness: Practical strategies for research and social change (pp. 165–180). American Psychological Association.
9.
CorriganP. W.GreenA.LundinR.KubiakM. A.PennD. L. (2001). Familiarity with and social distance from people who have serious mental illness. Psychiatric Services, 52, 953–958. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.52.7.953
CorriganP. W.WatsonA. C. (2002). The paradox of self-stigma and mental illness. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 35–53. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.9.1.35
DimidjianS.HollonS. D. (2010). How would we know if psychotherapy were harmful?American Psychologist, 65, 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017299
14.
DuntonB.FazioR. (2016). An individual difference measure of motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 316–326. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297233009
15.
Eno LoudenJ. (2009). Effect of mental disorder and substance abuse stigma on probation officers’ case management decisions [Doctoral dissertation]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, University of California, Irvine.
16.
Eno LoudenJ.ManchakS. M.RicksE. P.KennealyP. (2018). The role of stigma toward mental illness in probation officers’ perceptions of risk and case management decisions. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45, 573–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854818756148
17.
Eno LoudenJ.SkeemJ. L. (2013). How do probation officers assess and manage recidivism and violence risk for probationers with mental disorder? An experimental investigation. Law and Human Behavior, 7, 22–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093991
18.
Eno LoudenJ.SkeemJ. L.BlevinsA. (2013). Comparing the predictive utility of two screening tools for mental disorder among probationers. Psychological Assessment, 25, 405–415. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031213
19.
Eno LoudenJ.SkeemJ. L.CampJ.ChristensenE. (2008). Supervising probationers with mental disorder: How do agencies respond to violations?Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 832–847. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854808319042
20.
EppersonM.WolffN.MorganR.FisherW.FruehB.HueningJ. (2014). Envisioning the next generation of behavioral health and criminal justice interventions. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 37, 427–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2014.02.015
HuberP. J. (1967). The behavior of maximum likelihood estimates under non-standard conditions. Proceedings of the Fifth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, 1, 221–233.
LinkB. G. (1987). Understanding labeling effects in the area of mental disorders: An assessment of the effects of expectations of rejection. American Sociological Review, 52, 96–112. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095395
31.
LinkB. G.CullenF. T.FrankJ.WozniakJ. F. (1987). The social rejection of former mental patients: Understanding why labels matter. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 1461–1500. https://doi.org/10.1086/228672
32.
LinkB. G.PhelanJ. C. (1999). Labeling and stigma. In AneshenselC. S.PhelanJ. C. (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 481–494). Kluwer.
33.
LinkB. G.PhelanJ. C.BresnahanM.SteuveA.PescosolidoB. (1999). Public conceptions of mental illness: Labels, causes, dangerousness, and social distance. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1328–1333. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.89.9.1328
34.
LivingstonJ. D.RossiterK. R.Verdun-JonesS. N. (2011). “Forensic” labelling: An empirical assessment of its effects on self-stigma for people with severe mental illness. Psychiatry Research, 188, 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.01.018
35.
LurigioA.EppersonM.CanadaK.BabchukL. (2012). Specialized probation programs for people with mental illnesses: A review of practices and research. Journal of Crime and Justice, 35, 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2012.682845
ManchakS. M.SkeemJ. L.KennealyP. J.Eno LoudenJ. (2014). High-fidelity specialty mental health probation improves officer practices, treatment access, and rule compliance. Law and Human Behavior, 38, 450–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000076
38.
MarkowitzF. E. (2017). Labeling theory and mental illness. In FarringtonD. P.MurrayJ. (Eds.), Labeling theory: Empirical tests (pp. 45–62). Routledge.
39.
MerinoY.AdamsL.HallW. J. (2018). Implicit bias and mental health professionals: Priorities and directions for research. Psychiatric Services, 69, 723–725. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201700294
40.
MessinaN.BurdonW.HagopianG.PrendergastM. (2004). One year return to custody rates among co-disordered offenders. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 22, 503–518. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.600
41.
MulayA. L.VayshenkerB.WestM. L.KellyE. (2016). Crisis Intervention Training and implicit stigma toward mental illness: Reducing bias among criminal justice personnel. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 15, 369–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2016.1208308
ParcesepeA.CabassaL. (2013). Public stigma of mental illness in the United States: A systematic literature review. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 40(5), 384–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-012-0430-z
44.
PescosolidoB. A.MartinJ. K.LongJ. S.MedinaT.PhelanJ.LinkB. G. (2010). “A disease like any other?” A decade of change in public reactions to schizophrenia, depression, and alcohol dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 1321–1330. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09121743
45.
RaoH.MahadevappaH.PillayP.SessayM.AbrahamA.LutyJ. (2009). A study of stigmatized attitudes towards people with mental health problems among health professionals. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 16, 279–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01369.x
46.
RogersW. (1994). Regression standard errors in clustered samples. Stata Technical Bulletin, 3, 19–23.
47.
RosenfieldS. (2012). Triple jeopardy? Mental health at the intersection of gender, race, and class. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 1791–1801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.010
48.
RüschN.AngermeyerM. C.CorriganP. W. (2005). Mental illness stigma: Concepts, consequences, and initiatives to reduce stigma. European Psychiatry, 20, 529–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.04.004
49.
SchulzeB. (2009). Stigma and mental health professionals: A review of the evidence on an intricate relationship. International Review of Psychiatry, 19, 137–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260701278929
50.
SkeemJ. L.Emke-FrancisP.Eno LoudenJ. (2006). Probation, mental health, and mandated treatment: A national survey. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 158–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854805284420
51.
SkeemJ. L.EncandelaJ.Eno LoudenJ. (2003). Perspectives on probation and mandated mental health treatment in specialized and traditional probation departments. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21, 429–458. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.547
52.
SkeemJ. L.ManchakS. M.MontoyaL. (2017). Comparing public safety outcomes for traditional probation vs specialty mental health probation. JAMA Psychiatry, 74, 942–948. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.1384
53.
SkeemJ. L.ManchakS. M.PetersonJ. K. (2011). Correctional policy for offenders with mental illness: Creating a new paradigm for recidivism reduction. Law and Human Behavior, 35, 110–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-010-9223-7
54.
SkeemJ. L.WinterE.KennealyP.Eno LoudenJ.TatarJ.II. (2014). Offenders with mental illness have criminogenic needs, too: Toward recidivism reduction. Law and Human Behavior, 38, 212–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000054
55.
SteadmanH.OsherF. C. R.CaseB.SamuelsS. (2009). Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates. Psychiatric Services, 60, 761–765. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2009.60.6.761
56.
van der LaanM. J.PolleyE. C.HubbardA. E. (2007). Super learner. Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology, 6, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.2202/1544-6115.1309
57.
WatsonA.ComptonM.DraineJ. (2017). The Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) model: An evidence-based policing practice?Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 35, 431–441. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2304
58.
WeaverC.LeeJ.ChoiH.JohnsonW.ClementsC. (2018). Offenders living with mental illness: How are they perceived by future professionals?Journal of Social Work, 19, 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017318757383
59.
WestK.HewstoneM. (2012). Relatively socially acceptable prejudice within and between societies. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 22, 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.1112
60.
WhiteH. (1980). A heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroskedasticity. Econometrica, 48, 817–830.
61.
WilsonC.NairnR.CoverdaleJ.PanapaA. (2000). How mental illness is portrayed in children’s television: A prospective study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 440–443. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.176.5.440
62.
WinnickT.BodkinM. (2008). Anticipated stigma and stigma management among those to be labeled “ex-con.”Deviant Behavior, 29, 295–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701588081
63.
WolffN.EppersonM.ShiJ.HueningJ.SchumannB.SullivanI. R. (2014). Mental health specialized probation caseloads: Are they effective?International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 37, 464–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2014.02.019
