One of the primary motivations for hate crime laws is that hate crimes “hurt more.” But hate crimes are often committed by groups, and research indicates that crimes committed by groups are also more violent than other crimes. This research focuses on one type of harm, physical injury, asking, are hate crimes more violent because they involve co-offenders or because of the bias motivation behind the incident? Results using data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) indicate that hate crimes are positively associated with serious injury, but that this association is partially driven by co-offenders. More importantly, co-offending moderates this relationship: Incidents involving bias and co-offending are especially violent. Anti-sexual orientation incidents were an exception to this pattern, however, and are likely to be violent regardless of co-offending. These results suggest that hate crimes do hurt more, but that this relationship is partially attributable to the influence of co-offenders.
AddingtonL. A. (2004). The effect of NIBRS reporting on item missing data in murder cases. Homicide Studies, 8, 193-213.
2.
BarnesA.EphrossP. H. (1994). The impact of hate violence on victims: Emotional and behavioral responses to attacks. Social Work, 39, 247-251.
3.
BaronR. M.KennyD. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
4.
BealeS. S. (2000). Federalizing hate crimes: Symbolic politics, expressive law, or tool for criminal enforcement. Boston University Law Review, 80, 1227-1281.
5.
BufkinJ. (1999). Bias crime as gendered behavior. Social Justice, 26, 155-170.
6.
CarringtonP. J. (2002). Group crime in Canada. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 44, 277-316.
7.
CarringtonP. J. (2009). Co-offending and the development of the delinquent career. Criminology, 47, 1295-1329.
8.
ChengW.IckesW.KenworthyJ. B. (2013). The phenomenon of hate crimes in the United States. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43, 761-794.
9.
ChermakS. M.FreilichJ. D.ParkinW.LynchJ. P. (2012). American terrorism and extremist crime data sources and selectivity bias: An investigation focusing on homicide events committed by far-right extremists. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 28, 191-218.
10.
ConwayK. P.McCordJ. (2002). A longitudinal examination of the relation between co-offending with violent accomplices and violent crime. Aggressive Behavior, 28, 97-108.
11.
CorcoranH.LaderD.SmithK. (2015). Hate crime, England and Wales, 2014/15. London, England: Home Office Statistical Bulletin.
12.
CornishD.ClarkeR. (1986). Situational prevention, displacement of crime and rational choice theory. In HealK.LaycockG. K. (Eds.), Situational crime prevention: From theory into practice (pp. 1-16). Richmond, UK: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.
13.
CraigK. M. (2002). Examining hate-motivated aggression: A review of the social psychological literature on hate crimes as a distinct form of aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7, 85-101.
14.
DeKeseredyW.SchwartzM. D. (2005). Masculinities and interpersonal violence. In KimmelM. S.HearnJ.ConnellR. W. (Eds.), Handbook of studies on men and masculinities (pp. 353-366). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
15.
DunbarE. (1999). Defending the indefensible: A critique and analysis of psycholegal defense arguments of hate crime perpetrators. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 15, 64-77.
16.
DunbarE. (2003). Symbolic, relational, and ideological signifiers of bias-motivated offenders: Toward a strategy of assessment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 203-211.
17.
EhrlichH.LarcomB.PurvisR. (1994). The traumatic effects of ethnoviolence. In PerryB. (Ed.), Hate and bias crime: A reader (pp. 153-167). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
18.
FelsonR.LantzB. (2016). When are victims unlikely to cooperate with the police?Aggressive Behavior, 42, 97-108.
19.
FetzerM. D.PezzellaF. S. (2016). The nature of bias crime injuries: A comparative analysis of physical and psychological victimization effects. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0886260516672940
20.
FranklinK. (2000). Antigay behaviors among young adults: Prevalence, patterns and motivators in a noncriminal population. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 339-362.
21.
GarciaL.McDevittJ.GuJ.BalboniJ. (1999). The psychological and behavioral effects of bias and non-bias motivated assault. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
22.
GarofaloJ. (1991). Racially motivated crimes in New York City. In LynchM. J.PatersonE. B. (Eds.), Race and criminal justice (pp. 161-173). Albany, NY: Harrow and Heston.
23.
GladfelterA. S.LantzB.RubackR. B. (2017). The complexity of hate crime and bias activity: Variation across contexts and types of bias. Justice Quarterly, 34, 55-83.
24.
GruenewaldJ. (2012). Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique?Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 3601-3623.
25.
GruenewaldJ.AllisonK. (2018). Examining differences in bias homicide across victim groups. Crime & Delinquency, 64, 316-341.
26.
GruenewaldJ.KelleyK. (2014). Typifying anti-LGBT homicide events by mode of victim selection. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41, 1130-1142.
27.
HammM. S. (1993). American skinheads. Westport, CT: Praeger.
28.
HeiderF. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. London, England: Psychology Press.
29.
HerekG. M.GillisJ. R.CoganJ. C. (1999). Psychological sequelae of hate-crime victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 945-951.
30.
HerekG. M.GillisJ. R.CoganJ. C.GluntE. K. (1997). Hate crime victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 195-215.
31.
IganskiP. (2001). Hate crimes hurt more. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 626-638.
32.
IganskiP.LagouS. (2014). The personal injuries of “hate crime.” In HallN.CorbA.GiannasiP.GrieveJ. (Eds.), The routledge international handbook on hate crime (pp. 34-46). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
33.
JonesE. E. (1964). Ingratiation, a social psychological analysis. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
34.
KieslerC. A.KieslerS. B. (1969). Conformity. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
35.
KleinB. R.AllisonK. (2018). Accomplishing difference: How do anti-race/ethnicity bias homicides compare to average homicides in the United States?Justice Quarterly, 35, 977-1003. doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1351576
36.
LantzB. (2018). The consequences of crime in company: Co-offending, victim-offender relationship, and quality of violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0886260518786497
37.
LantzB.GladfelterA. S.RubackR. B. (2017). Stereotypical hate crimes and criminal justice processing: A multi-dataset comparison of bias crime arrest patterns by offender and victim race. Justice Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1399211
38.
LantzB.HutchisonR. (2015). Co-offender ties and the criminal career: The relationship between co-offender group structure and the individual offender. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52, 658-690.
39.
LantzB.RubackR. B. (2017). The relationship between co-offending, age, and experience using a sample of adult burglary offenders. Journal of Developmental and Life-course Criminology, 3, 76-97.
40.
LauferA.HarelY.MolchoM. (2006). Daring, substance use and involvement in violence among school children: Exploring a path model. Journal of School Violence, 5, 71-88.
41.
LawrenceF. M. (1994). The punishment of hate: Toward a normative theory of bias-motivated crimes. Michigan Law Review, 93, 320-381.
42.
LawrenceF. M. (2002). Racial violence on a “small island”: Bias crime in a multicultural society. In BurneyE. (Ed.), The hate debate: Should hate be punished as a crime. London, England: Profile Books.
43.
LawrenceF. M. (2009). Punishing hate. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
44.
LevinB. (1999). Hate crimes: Worse by definition. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 15, 6-21.
45.
LevinJ.McDevittJ. (1993). Hate crimes: The rising tide of bigotry and Bloodshed. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
46.
LevinJ.McDevittJ. (2002). Hate crimes revisited: America’s war on those who are different. New York, NY: Basic Books.
47.
LevinJ.ReichelmannA. (2015). From thrill to defensive motivation: The role of group threat in the changing nature of hate-motivated assaults. American Behavioral Scientist, 59, 1546-1561.
48.
LyonsC. J. (2008). Individual perceptions and the social construction of hate crimes: A factorial survey. The Social Science Journal, 45, 107-131.
49.
LyonsC. J.RobertsA. (2014). The difference “hate” makes in clearing crime: An event history analysis of incident factors. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30, 268-289.
50.
MartinS. E. (1996). Investigating hate crimes: Case characteristics and law enforcement responses. Justice Quarterly, 13, 455-480.
51.
MatzaD. (1964). Delinquency and drift. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
52.
McDevittJ.BalboniJ.GarciaL.GuJ. (2001). Consequences for victims: A comparison of bias-and non-bias-motivated assaults. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 697-713.
53.
McDevittJ.LevinJ.BennettS. (2002). Hate crime offenders: An expanded typology. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 303-317.
54.
McGloinJ. M.PiqueroA. R. (2009). “I wasn’t alone”: Collective behaviour and violent delinquency. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 42, 336-353.
55.
McGloinJ. M.RowanZ. R. (2015). A threshold model of collective crime. Criminology, 53, 484-512.
56.
McGloinJ. M.ThomasK. J. (2016). Incentives for collective deviance: Group size and changes in perceived risk, cost, and reward. Criminology, 54, 459-486.
57.
MesserschmidtJ. W. (1993). Masculinities and crime: Critique and reconceptualization of theory. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
58.
MessnerS. F.McHughS.FelsonR. B. (2004). Distinctive characteristics of assaults motivated by bias. Criminology, 42, 585-618.
59.
MeyerD. (2010). Evaluating the severity of hate-motivated violence: Intersectional differences among LGBT hate crime victims. Sociology, 44, 980-995.
60.
PerryB. (2001). In the name of hate: Understanding hate crimes. London, England: Psychology Press.
61.
PerryB. (2012). Hate and bias crime: A reader. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
62.
PezzellaF. S.FetzerM. D. (2017). The likelihood of injury among bias crimes: An analysis of general and specific bias types. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32, 703-729.
63.
RubackR. B.GladfelterA. S.LantzB. (2015). An examination of hate and bias incidents in Pennsylvania, 1999-2012. Harrisburg: Center for Rural Pennsylvania.
64.
RubackR. B.GladfelterA. S.LantzB. (2018). Hate crime victimization data in Pennsylvania: A useful complement to the UCR. Violence & Victims, 33, 330-350.
65.
RuckerD. D.PreacherK. J.TormalaZ. L.PettyR. E. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 359-371.
66.
ShawC. R.McKayH. D. (1931). Social factors in juvenile delinquency. Washington, DC: Government Press.
67.
StromK. (2001). Hate crimes reported in NIBRS, 1997-99. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
68.
WarrM. (2002). Companions in crime: The social aspects of criminal conduct. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
69.
WeinsteinJ. (1992). First Amendment challenges to hate crime legislation: Where’s the speech?Criminal Justice Ethics, 11, 6-20.
70.
WeisburdS. B.LevinB. (1993). On the basis of sex: Recognizing gender-based bias crimes. Stanford Law & Policy Review, 5, 21-48.
71.
ZaykowskiH. (2010). Racial disparities in hate crime reporting. Violence & Victims, 25, 378-394.
