The AMBER Alert system enjoys widespread public support. Yet evidence suggests that the system may be ineffective and have unintended consequences. Because AMBER Alerts are illusory means of controlling crime, they may be conceptualized as “crime control theater” (CCT) and thus are indicative of a problematic social tendency to address complex issues through simple solutions. This article utilizes principles of social cognition, attitudes, social norms, and symbolic interaction to predict that the AMBER Alert system will persevere despite its disadvantages. This analysis can help account for the popularity of other forms of CCT. It also highlights the need for future research aimed at elucidating the processes responsible for the acceptance of policies that are mere theater.
Ackerman, G., Anderson, B., Jensen, S., Ludwig, R., Montero, D., Plante, N., & Yanez, V. ( 2001). Crime rates and confidence in the police: America’s changing attitudes toward crime and policy, 1972-1999. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 28, 43-54.
2.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. ( 2005). The influence of attitudes on behavior. In D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 173-222). New York, NY : Psychology Press.
3.
Armstrong, M.M., Miller, M.K., & Griffin, T. ( 2010). Examining the psychology of crime control theater using sex offender registration and notification laws. Manuscript submitted for publication.
4.
Batson, C.D. ( 1998). Altruism and prosocial behavior. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 282-316). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
5.
Blank, H., Fischer, V., & Erdfelder, E. ( 2003). Hindsight bias in political elections. Memory, 11, 491-504.
Chen, E.Y. ( 2008). Impacts of "three strikes and you’re out" on crime trends in California and throughout the United States. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 24, 345-370.
8.
Cialdini, R.B., & Trost, M.R. ( 1998). Social norms, conformity, and compliance. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 151-192). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
9.
Ditto, P.H., & Lopez, D.F. ( 1992). Motivated skepticism: Use of differential decision criteria for preferred and nonpreferred conclusions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 568-584.
10.
Dzur, A.W., & Mirchandani, R. (2007). Punishment and democracy: The role of public deliberation. Punishment & Society , 9, 151-175.
11.
Eagly, A.H., & Chaiken, S. ( 1993). The psychology of attitudes. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
12.
Eagly, A.H., & Chaiken, S. ( 1998). Attitude structure and function. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 269-322). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
13.
Epstein, S., Lipson, A., Holstein, C., & Huh, E. ( 1992). Irrational reactions to negative outcomes: Evidence for two conceptual systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 328-339.
14.
Fabrigar, L.R., MacDonald, T.K., & Wegener, D.T. ( 2005). The structure of attitudes. In D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 79-124). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
15.
Girl’s murder shakes Calif. town. (2009, April 10). CBS News. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/04/10/earlyshow/main4933677.shtml
16.
Griffin, T., & Miller, M.K. ( 2008). Child abduction, AMBER Alert, and "crime control theater."Criminal Justice Review, 33, 159-176.
17.
Griffin, T., Miller, M.K., Hoppe, J., Rebideaux, A., & Hammack, R. ( 2007). A preliminary examination of AMBER Alert’s effects . Criminal Justice Policy Review, 18, 378-394.
18.
Hammond, M., Miller, M.K., & Griffin, T. (in press). Safe haven laws as crime control theater. Child Abuse and Neglect.
19.
Hanfland, K.A., Keppel, R.D., & Weiss, J.G. ( 1997). Case management for missing children homicide investigation: Executive summary. Olympia, WA: Office of the Attorney General.
20.
Harder, K.A., Bloomfield, J., & Chihak, B.J. ( 2003). The effectiveness and safety of traffic and non-traffic related messages presented on changeable message signs (CMS). Retrieved from http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/793
21.
Harris, A.J., Lobanov-Rostovsky, C., & Levenson, J.S. (2010). Widening the net: The effects of transitioning to the Adam Walsh Act’s federally mandated sex offender classification system. Criminal Justice and Behavior , 37, 503-519.
22.
Hawkins, S.A., & Hastie, R. ( 1990). Hindsight: Biased judgments of past events after the outcomes are known. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 311-327.
23.
Higgins, E.T. ( 2000). Social cognition: Learning about what matters in the social world. European Journal of Social Psychology , 30, 3-39.
24.
Howard, J.A., Renfrow, D.G. ( 2006). Social cognition. In J. Delameter (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 259-281). New York, NY: Kluwer.
25.
Johnson, B.T., Maio, G.R., & Smith-McLallen, A. (2005). Communication and attitude change: Causes, processes, and effects. In D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 617-670). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
26.
Jones, T., & Newburn, T. ( 2006). Three strikes and you’re out: Exploring symbol and substance in American and British crime control policies. British Journal of Criminology, 46, 781-802.
27.
Keller, C., Siergrist, M., & Gutscher, H. ( 2006). The role of the affect and availability heuristics in risk communication. Risk Analysis, 26, 631-639.
28.
Koch, W. ( 2008, September 26). Nebraska "safe haven" law for kids has unintended results. USA Today. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-09-25-Left-kids_N.htm
29.
Krauss, D.A., Lieberman, J.D., & Olson, M.A. ( 2004). The effects of rational and experiential information processing of expert testimony in death penalty cases. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 22, 801-822.
30.
Krovandzic, T.V., Sloan, J.J., & Vieratis, L.M. (2004). "Striking out" as crime reduction policy: The impact of "three strikes" laws on crime rates in U.S. cities. Justice Quarterly, 21, 207-239.
31.
Kruglanski, A.W., & Stroebe, W. ( 2005). The influence of beliefs and goals on attitudes: Issues of structure, function, and dynamics. In D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 369-397). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
32.
Kunda, Z. ( 1999). Social cognition: Making sense of people. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
33.
Levenson, J.S., Brannon, Y., Fortney, T., & Baker, J. ( 2007). Public perceptions about sex offenders and community protection policies. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 7, 1-25.
34.
Levenson, J.S., & D’Amora, D.A. (2007). Social policies designed to prevent sexual violence: The emperor’s new clothes? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 18, 168-199.
35.
Levenson, J.S., D’Amora, D.A., & Hern, A.L. ( 2007). Megan’s Law and its impact on community re-entry for sex offenders. Behavioral Sciences and the Law , 25, 587-602.
36.
Macrae, N.C., Milne, A.B., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 37-47.
37.
Maio, G.R., Olson, J.M., Bernard, M.M., & Luke, M.A. ( 2006). Ideologies, values, attitudes, and behavior. In J. Delameter (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 283-308). New York, NY: Kluwer.
38.
McCall, G. ( 2006). Symbolic interaction. In P. J. Burke (Ed.), Contemporary social psychological theories (pp. 111-136). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
39.
Megan’s Law no deterrent to sex offenders. (2009, February 6). Associated Press. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/02/06/national/main4780981.shtml
40.
Miller, J.M., Kurlycheck, M., Hansen, J.A., & Wilson, K. ( 2008). Examining child abduction by offender type patterns . Justice Quarterly, 25, 523-543.
41.
Miller, M.K., & Clinkenbeard, S.S. (2006). Improving the AMBER Alert system: Psychology research and policy recommendations. Law and Psychology Review, 30, 1-21.
42.
Miller, M.K., Griffin, T., Clinkenbeard, S.S., & Thomas, R.M. ( 2009). The psychology of AMBER Alert: Unresolved issues and policy implications. Social Science Journal, 46, 111-123.
43.
Muschert, G.W., Young-Spillers, M., & Carr, D. ( 2006). "Smart" policy decisions to combat a social problem: The case of child abductions 2002-2003. Justice Policy Journal , 3, 1-32.
44.
Petrosino, A., Turpin-Petrosino, C., & Finckenauer, J.O. (2000). Well-meaning programs can have harmful effects! Lessons from experiments of programs such as Scared Straight. Crime & Delinquency, 46, 354-378.
45.
Petty, R.E., & Wegener, D.T. ( 1998). Attitude change: Multiple roles for persuasion variables . In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 323-390). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
46.
Powell, J.L. ( 1988). A test of the knew-it-all-along effect in the 1984 presidential statewide elections. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 18, 760-773.
47.
Prislin, R., & Ouellette, J. ( 1996). When it is embedded, it is potent: Effects of general attitude embeddedness on formation of specific attitudes and behavioral intentions . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 845-861.
48.
Proctor, J.L., Badzinski, D.M., & Johnson, M. ( 2002). The impact of media on knowledge and perceptions of Megan’s Law. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 13, 356-379.
49.
Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. ( 1987). Toward an integration of cognitive and motivational perspectives on social inference: A biased hypothesis-testing model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 297-340). New York, NY: Academic Press.
50.
Sandstrom, K., & Kleinman, S. ( 2003). Symbolic interactionism. In G. Ritzer (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social theory (pp. 821-826). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51.
Sanger, C. ( 2006). Infant safe haven laws: Legislating in the culture of life. Columbia Law Review, 106, 753-829.
52.
Schneider, M.A. ( 2006). The theory primer: A sociological guide. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield .
53.
Schneier, B. ( 2003). Beyond fear: Thinking sensibly about security in an uncertain world. New York, NY: Copernicus .
54.
Sicafuse, L.L., & Miller, M.K. ( 2009). [Attitudes toward the AMBER Alert crime control system] . Unpublished raw data.
55.
Siegrist, M., & Gutscher, H. ( 2006). Flooding risks: A comparison of lay people’s perceptions and expert assessments in Switzerland. Risk Analysis , 26, 971-979.
56.
Slovic, P., Fischoff, B., & Lichenstein, S. (1982). Facts versus fears: Understanding perceived risk. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 436-489). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
57.
Sorenson, S.B., Manz, J.G., & Berk, R.A. ( 1999). News media coverage and the epidemiology of homicide . American Journal of Public Health, 88, 1510-1514.
58.
Steele, C.M. ( 1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261-302). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
59.
Stryker, S., & Vryan, D. ( 2006). The symbolic interactionist frame. In J. Delameter (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 3-28). New York, NY: Kluwer.
60.
Surrette, R. ( 2007). Media, crime, and criminal justice: Images, realities, and policies. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth .
61.
Trope, Y., & Bassok, M. ( 1983). Information-gathering strategies in hypothesis testing . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 560-576.
62.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. ( 1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases . Science, 185, 1124-1131.
63.
Tyler, T.R. ( 2006). Psychological perspectives on legitimacy and legitimation . Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 375-400.
64.
Ullman, B.R., Dudek, C.L., & Trout, N.D. ( 2006). Amber Alert and major catastrophe messages on dynamic message signs: Focus group studies in Texas. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1959, 114-121.
65.
U.S. Department of Justice. (2006). Analysis of AMBER-Alert cases in 2006. Retrieved from http://www.missingkids.com/en_US/documents/2006AMBERAlerReport.pdf
66.
Zgoba, K. ( 2004a). The AMBER Alert: The appropriate solution to preventing child abduction? Journal of Psychiatry and Law , 32, 71-88.
67.
Zgoba, K. ( 2004b). Spin doctors and moral crusaders: The moral panic behind child safety legislation. Criminal Justice Studies , 17, 385-404.
68.
Zgoba, K., Veysey, B.M., & Dalessandro, M. (2009). An analysis of the effectiveness of community notification and registration: Do the best intentions predict the best practices? Justice Quarterly. Advance online publication . doi: 10.1080/07418820903357673
69.
Zgoba, K., Witt, P., Dalessandro, M., & Veysey, B. ( 2008). Megan’s Law: Assessing the practical and monetary efficacy. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
