Although incarceration has a substantial impact on intimate relationships, little is known about how individuals cope with their separation and reunification. Incarceration also poses serious health risks for HIV infection, as rates are up to 6 times higher in the prison than the general population. A series of focus groups were conducted with individuals affected by incarceration to examine specific relationship challenges and factors that may place them at increased risk for HIV infection during and after their incarceration. Results highlight how institutional barriers and dependency lead to emotional withdrawal and disengagement from relationships. In addition, power differentials, avoidant communication strategies, and relationship instability were found to place these relationships at increased risk for HIV infection. Intervention recommendations for working with this population are discussed.
Arditti, J.A. (2003). Locked doors and glass walls: Family visiting at a local jail. Journal of Loss andTrauma, 8, 115-138.
2.
Arditti, J.A., Lambert-Shute, J., & Joest, K. (2003). Saturday morning at the jail: Implications of incarceration for families and children. Family Relations , 52, 195-204.
3.
Battle, R.S., Cummings, G.L., Barker, J.C., & Krasnovsky, F.M. (1995). Accessing an understudied population in behavioral HIV/AIDS research: Low income African American women . Journal of Health and Social Policy, 7, 1-17.
4.
Becker, S. (1996). Couples and reproductive health: A review of couple studies. Studies in Family Planning, 27, 291-306.
5.
Berg, B.L. (1998). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
6.
Bertaux, D. (1981). From the life-history approach to the transformation of sociological practice. In C. Bertaux (Ed.), Biography and society: The life history approach in the social sciences (pp. 29-45). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
7.
Boss, P. (1999). Ambiguous loss: Learning to live with unresolved grief. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
8.
Bowman, P. (1989). Research perspectives on Black men: Role strain and adaptation across the adult life cycle. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Black adult development and aging (pp. 117-150). Berkeley, CA: Cobb and Henry.
9.
Bowman, P.J. & Forman, T.A. (1997). Instrumental and expressive family roles among African American fathers. In R. J. Taylor , J. S. Jackson, & L. M. Chatters (Eds.), Family life in Black America (pp. 216-247). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10.
Bryan, A., Ruiz, M.S., & O'Neill, D. (2003). HIV-related behaviors among prison inmates: A theory of planned behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 2565-2586.
11.
Campbell, C., & Williams, B. (1999). Beyond the biomedical and behavioral: Towards an integrated approach to HIV prevention in the southern African mining industry . Social Science & Medicine, 48, 1625-1639.
12.
Carlson, B.E., & Cervera, N. (1991). Inmates and their families: Conjugal visits, family contact, and family functioning. Criminal Justice and Behavior , 18, 318-331.
13.
Cazenave, N.A. (1981). Black men in America: The quest for manhood. In H. P. McAdoo (Ed.), Black families (pp. 176-186). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
14.
Cohen, S., & Williamson, G.M. (1991). Stress and infectious disease in humans. Psychological Bulletin,109, 5-24.
15.
Comfort, M., Grinstead, O.A., Faigeles, B., & Zack, B. (2000). Reducing HIV risk among women visiting their incarcerated male partners. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 57-71.
16.
Comfort, M., Grinstead, O., McCartney, K., Bourgois, P., & Knight, K. (2005). “You can't do nothing in this damn place”: Sex and intimacy among couples with an incarcerated male partner. Journal of Sex Research, 42, 3-12.
17.
Coyne, J.C., & Delongis, A. (1986). Going beyond social support: The role of social relationships in adaptation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 454-460.
18.
Denzin, N.K. (1978). The research act. New York : McGraw-Hill.
19.
DeVellis, R.F., Lewis, M.A., & Sterba, K.R. (2003). Interpersonal emotional processes in adjustment to chronic illness. In J. Suls & K. Wallston (Eds.), Social psychological foundations of health (pp. 256-287). London: Blackwell.
20.
Federal Bureau of Prisons. (2006). Management of HIV: Clinical practice guidelines. Retrieved August 17, 2006, from http://www.bop.gov/news/medresources.jsp
21.
Fishman, L.T. (1988a). Prisoners and their wives: Marital and domestic effects of telephone contacts and home visits. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 32, 55-66.
22.
Fishman, L.T. (1988b). Stigmatization and prisoners' wives' feelings of shame. Deviant Behavior, 9, 169-192.
23.
French J.R.P., Jr., Rodgers, W., & Cobb, S. (1974). Adjustment as person-environment fit. In G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, & J. E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and adaptation (pp. 316-333). New York: Basic Books.
24.
Garland, J.T., Morgan, R.D., & Beer, A.M. (2005). Impact of time in prison and security level on inmate's sexual attitude, behavior, and identity. Psychological Services, 2, 151-162.
25.
Gay and Lesbian Advocates and Defenders. ( 2000). HIV testing, confidentiality, and discrimination: An outline of legal protections for persons with HIV in Connecticut. Retrieved August 17, 2006, from http://www.glad.org/rights/hivct.pdf
26.
Gimbel, C., & Booth, A. (1994). Why does military combat adversely affect marital relations?Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 691-703.
27.
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine.
28.
Grinstead, O.A., Zack, B., Faigeles, B., Grossman, N., & Blea, L. (1999). Reducing post release HIV risk among male prison inmates: A peer-led intervention. Criminal Justice and Behavior , 26, 453-465.
29.
Hairston, C.F. (1998). The forgotten parent: Understanding the forces that influence incarcerated fathers' relationships with their children. Child Welfare, 77, 617-639.
30.
Hammett, T.M. (2000, October). Health-related issues in prisoner reentry to the community. Paper presented at the Reentry Roundtable, Washington, DC.
31.
Hammett, T.M., Harmon, M.P., & Rhodes, W. (2002). The burden of infectious disease among inmates of and releasees from US correctional facilities. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 1789-1794.
32.
Harman, J.J. (2005). Rebuilding intimate relationships after incarceration: Implications for HIV risk. TheHealth Psychologist, 27, 8-9.
33.
Helgeson, V.S. (1994). The effects of self-beliefs and relationship beliefs on adjustment to a relationship stressor. Personal Relationships , 1, 241-258.
34.
Kahn, J.G. (1996). The cost-effectiveness of HIV prevention and targeting: How much more bang for the buck?American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1709-1712.
35.
Kelley, H.H., Berscheid, E., Christensen, A., Harvey, J.H., Huston, T.L., Levinger, G., et al. (1983). Analyzing close relationships. In H. H. Kelley, E. Berscheid, A. Christensen, J. H. Harvey, T. L. Huston , G. Levinger, E. McClintock, L. A. Peplau, & D. R. Peterson (Eds.), Close relationships (pp. 20-67). New York: Freeman .
36.
Kidder, L.H. (1981). Qualitative research and quasi-experimental frameworks . In M. B. Brewer & B. E. Collins (Eds.), Scientific inquiry and the social sciences (pp. 226-256). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
37.
Kim, A., Page-Shafer, K., Ruiz, J., Reyes, L., Delgado, V., Klausner, J., et al. (2002). Vulnerability to HIV among women formerly incarcerated and women with incarcerated sexual partners. AIDS and Behavior, 6, 331-338.
38.
King, A.E.O. (1993). The impact of incarceration on African-American families: Implications for practice. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 74, 145-153.
39.
Krebs, C.P., & Simmons, M. (2002). Intraprison HIV transmission: An assessment of whether it occurs, how it occurs, and who is at risk. AIDS Education and Prevention, 14, 53-64.
40.
Leh, S.K. (1999). HIV infection in U.S. correctional systems: Its effect on the community. Journal of Community Health Nursing , 16, 53-63.
41.
Lindesmith, A.R. (1952). Comment on W. S. Robinson's The logical structure of analytic induction. American Sociological Review, 17, 492-493.
42.
Lopez-Zetina, J., Kerndt, P., Ford, W., Woerhle, T., & Weber, M. (2001). Prevalence of HIV and hepatitis B and self-reported injection risk behavior during detention among street-recruited injection drug users in Los Angeles County, 1994-1996. Addiction, 96, 589-595.
43.
Maruschak, L.M. (2001). HIV in prisons and jails, 1999 (NCJ Publication No. 187456). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
44.
McKay, H.B., Jaywardene, C.H., & Reedie, P.B. (1979). The effects of long term incarceration and a proposed strategy for future research. Ottawa: Solicitor General of Canada.
45.
Misovich, S.J., Fisher, J.D., & Fisher, W.A. (1997). Close relationships and elevated HIV risk behavior: Evidence and possible underlying psychological processes. Review of GeneralPsychology, 1, 72-107.
46.
Mohino, S., Kirchner, T., & Forns, M. (2004). Coping strategies in young male prisoners. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 41-49.
47.
Morris, J.E., & Levine-Coley, R. (2004). Maternal, family, and work correlates of role strain in low-income mothers. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 424-432.
48.
Nelson, M., Deess, P., & Allen, C. (1999). The first months out: Post-incarceration experiences in New York City. New York: Vera Institute of Justice.
49.
Ortiz, D.J., Bing, E.G., Boyer, C.B., Russak, S.M., De Deus, F.J., & Ernesto, F. (2005). Evidence-based recommendations for prevention of human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted infections in the Angolan armed forces: Challenges and opportunities at the end of 30 years of war. Military Medicine, 170, 327-332.
50.
Paulus, P.B., & Dzindolet, M.T. (1993). Reactions of male and female inmates to prison confinement. Criminal and Justice Behavior , 20, 149-166.
51.
Petersilia, J. (2003). When prisoners come home: Parole and prisoner reentry. New York: Oxford University Press.
52.
Phillips, J. (2001). Cultural constructions of masculinity in prison . Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 2, 13-23.
53.
Recker-Rayburn, N., Wenzel, S.L., Elliott, M.N., Harbarsoomians, K., Marshall, G.N., & Tucker, J.S. (2005). Trauma, depression, coping, and mental health service-seeking among impoverished women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 667-677.
54.
Rindfuss, R.R., & Stephen, E.H. (1990). Separation does not make the heart grow fonder . Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 259-270.
55.
Rusbult, C.E. (1980). Commitment and satisfaction in romantic associations: A test of the investment model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16, 172-186.
56.
Schaefer, M.T., & Olson, D.H. (1981). Assessing intimacy: The PAIR Inventory. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 7, 47-60.
57.
Schoenbauer, L.J. (1986). Incarcerated parents and their children—Forgotten families. Law and Inequality, 4, 579-601.
58.
Seal, D.W., Belcher, L., Morrow, K., Eldridge, G., Binson, D., Kacanek, D., Margolis, A.D., McAuliffe, T., Simms, R., & the Project START Study Group. ( 2004). A qualitative study of substance use and sexual behavior among 18- to 29-year-old men while incarcerated in the United States. Health Education & Behavior, 31, 775-789.
59.
Shah, S.A., Kristensen, S., & Khan, O.A. (2000). Behavioral and biomedical risk factors for the transmission of HIV/AIDS in Bangladesh. International Journal of STD &AIDS, 11, 133-134.
60.
Sherman, S.G., & Latkin, C.A. (2001). Intimate relationship characteristics associated with condom use among drug users and their sex partners: A multilevel analysis . Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 64, 97-104.
61.
Silverstein, L.B., Auerbach, C.F., & Levant, R.F. (2002). Contemporary fathers reconstructing masculinity: Clinical implications of gender role strain. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33, 361-369.
62.
Spaulding, A., Stephenson, B., Macalino, G., Ruby, W., Clarke, J.G., & Flanigan, T.P. (2002). Human immunodeficiency virus in correctional facilities: A review. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 35, 305-312.
63.
Strauss, A.L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York: Cambridge University Press.
64.
Swartz, J.A., Lurigio, A.J., & Weiner, D.A. (2004). Correlates of HIV-risk behaviors among prison inmates: Implications for tailored AIDS prevention programming. The Prison Journal, 84, 486-504.
65.
Taylor, R.D., Roberts, D., & Jacobson, L. (1997). Stressful life events, psychological well-being, and parenting in African American single mothers. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 436-446.
66.
Websdale, N. (2001). Policing the poor: From slave plantation to public housing. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
67.
Whitehead, P.C., & Carpenter, D. (1999). Explaining unsafe sexual behavior: Cultural definitions and health in the military. Culture, Health, & Sexuality , 1, 303-315.
68.
Yovetich, N.A., & Rusbult, C.E. (1994). Accommodative behavior in close relationships: Exploring transformation of motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 138-164.
69.
Zack, B., Bancroft, C., Blea, L., Comfort, M., Grossman, N., Grinstead, O., et al. (2001). Collaborative research to prevent HIV among male prison inmates and their female partners. Retrieved December 2, 2002, from University of California San Francisco, AIDS Research Institute Center for AIDS Prevention Studies Web site: http://www.caps.ucsf.edu/publications/prisonS2C.pdf
70.
Zamble, E., & Porporino, F. (1990). Coping, imprisonment, and rehabilitation: Some data and their implications. Criminal Justice and Behavior , 17, 53-70.
71.
Zamble, E., & Quinsey, V.L. (1997). The criminal recidivism process. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
72.
Zwillich, T. (2002, February 25). Bush administration may consider condoms in prisons. Reuters Health, Health eLine. Retrieved February 28, 2002, from http://www.reutershealth.com
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
