Research examining the role of goals in message production has identified ways communicative goals can be characterized. The authors conducted 2 studies investigating how characteristics of goals influence linguistic features in responses to problematic events in close relationships. We posited that 5 features of goals would be associated with message focus and embellishment. In Study 1, respondents recalled a problematic event in a close relationship, the conversation they had with that partner after the event, and the reasons why they offered the recalled response. Participants then answered questions about the event. In Study 2, they presented participants with hypothetical problems and asked them to role-play leaving a telephone message for their partners about the event. The results indicated that goal challenge, intensity, and complexity were positively associated with message embellishment. Focal center was predicted by a respondent's primary message goal. They discuss implications for understanding facets of communication goals and the nature of problematic events in close relationships.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Austin, J. T.
, & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 338-375.
2.
Baars, B. J.
, Fehling, M. R., LaPolla, M., & McGovern, K. (1997). Consciousness creates access: Conscious goal images recruit unconscious action routines, but goal competition serves to liberate such routines, causing predictable slips. In J. D. Cohen & J. W. Schooler (Eds.), Scientific approaches to consciousness (pp. 423-444). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
3.
Bates, E.
, Masling, M., & Kintsch, W. (1978). Recognition memory for aspects of dialogue. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Memory and Learning, 4, 187-197.
4.
Baumeister, R. F.
, Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1995). Personal narratives about guilt: Role in action control and interpersonal relationships. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 173-198.
5.
Baxter, L.
(1990). Dialectical contradictions in relationship development. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7, 69-88.
6.
Berger, C. R.
(1993). Goals, plans, and mutual understanding in relationships. In S. Duck (Ed.), Individuals in relationships (pp. 30-59). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
7.
Berger, C. R.
(1995). A plan-based approach to strategic communication. In D. E. Hewes (Ed.), The cognitive bases of interpersonal communication (pp. 141-179). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
8.
Berger, C. R.
(1997). Planning strategic interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
9.
Berger, C. R.
, & diBattista, P. (1993). Communication failure and plan adaptation: If at first you don't succeed, say it louder and slower. Communication Monographs, 60, 220-238.
10.
Berger, C. R.
, & Jordan, J. M. (1992). Planning sources, planning difficulty, and verbal fluency. Communication Monographs, 59, 130-149.
11.
Berger, C. R.
, Karol, S. H., & Jordan, J. M. (1989). When a lot of knowledge is a dangerous thing: The debilitating effects of plan complexity on verbal fluency. Human Communication Research, 16, 91-119.
12.
Berger, C. R.
, Knowlton, S. W., & Abrahams, M. F. (1996). The hierarchy principle in strategic communication. Communication Theory, 6, 111-142.
13.
Burgoon, J. K.
, & Hale, J. L. (1984). The fundamental topoi of relational communication. Communication Monographs, 51, 193-214.
14.
Cissna, K.N.L.
, & Sieburg, E. (1981). Patterns of interactional confirmation and disconfirmation. In C. Wilder-Mott & J. H. Weakland (Eds.), Rigor and imagination: Essays from the legacy of Gregory Bateson (pp. 253-282). New York: Praeger.
15.
Cody, M. J.
, Canary, D. J., & Smith, S. W. (1994). Compliance-gaining goals: An inductive analysis of actors' goal types, strategies, and successes. In J. A. Daly & J. M. Wiemann (Eds.), Strategic interpersonal communication (pp. 33-90). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
16.
Cohen, P. R.
, & Perrault, C. R. (1979). Elements of a plan-based theory of speech acts. Cognitive Science, 3, 177-212.
17.
Craig, R. T.
(1986). Goals in discourse. In D. G. Ellis & W. A. Donohue (Eds.), Contemporary issues in language and discourse processes (pp. 256-275). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
18.
Dainton, M.
, & Stafford, L. (1993). Routine maintenance behaviors: A comparison of relationship type, partner similarity, and sex differences. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10, 255-271.
19.
Darby, B. W.
, & Schlenker, B. R. (1982). Children's reactions to apologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 742-753.
20.
Dillard, J. P.
(1990a). A goal-driven model of interpersonal influence. In J. P. Dillard (Ed.), Seeking compliance: The production of interpersonal influence messages (pp. 41-56). Scottsdale, AZ: Gorsuch Scarisbrick.
21.
Dillard, J. P.
(1990b). The nature and substance of goals in tactical communication. In M. J. Cody & M. L. McLaughlin (Eds.), The psychology of tactical communication (pp. 70-90). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
22.
Dillard, J. P.
(1997). Explicating the goal construct: Tools for theorists. In J. O. Greene (Ed.), Message production: Advances in communication theory (pp. 47-70). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
23.
Dillard, J. P.
, Segrin, C., & Harden, J. (1989). Primary and secondary goals in the interpersonal influence process. Communication Monographs, 56, 19-39.
24.
Edelmann, R. J.
(1985). Social embarrassment: An analysis of the process. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2, 195-213.
25.
Emmons, R. A.
(1997). Motives and life goals. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 485-512). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
26.
Fincham, F. D.
(1992). The account episode in close relationships. In M. L. McLaughlin, M. J. Cody, & S. J. Read (Eds.), Explaining oneself to others: Reason-giving in a social context (pp. 167-182). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
27.
Francik, E. P.
, & Clark, H. H. (1985). How to make requests that overcome obstacles to compliance. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 560-568.
28.
Fukushima, O.
, & Ohbuchi, K. (1996). Antecedents and effects of multiple goals in conflict resolution. The International Journal of Conflict Management, 7, 191-208.
29.
Garrod, S. C.
, & Sanford, A. J. (1994). Resolving sentences in a discourse context. In S. C. Garrod & A. J. Sanford (Eds.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 675-698). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
30.
Goldsmith, D.
(1992). Managing conflicting goals in supportive interaction. Communication Research, 19, 264-286.
31.
Goldsmith, L.
, & Pillemer, D. (1988). Memory of statements spoken in everyday contexts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 273-280.
32.
Greene, J. O. (1983). Development and initial tests of an action assembly theory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
33.
Greene, J. O.
(1984). A cognitive approach to human communication: An action assembly theory. Communication Monographs, 51, 289-306.
34.
Greene, J. O.
(1989). The stability of nonverbal behavior: An action-production approach to problems of cross-situational consistency and discriminativeness. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 8, 193-220.
35.
Greene, J. O.
(1995). An action-assembly perspective on verbal and nonverbal message production: A dancer's message unveiled. In D. E. Hewes (Ed.), The cognitive bases of interpersonal communication (pp. 51-81). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
36.
Greene, J. O.
(1997). A second generation action assembly theory. In J. O. Greene (Ed.), Message production: Advances in communication theory (pp. 151-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
37.
Greene, J. O.
, McDaniel, T. L., Buksa, K., & Ravizza, S. M. (1993). Cognitive processes in the production of multiple goal messages: Evidence from the temporal characteristics of speech. Western Journal of Communication, 57, 65-86.
38.
Greene, J. O.
, Smith, S. W., & Lindsey, A. E. (1990). Memory representations of compliance-gaining strategies and tactics. Human Communication Research, 17, 195-213.
39.
Guetzkow, H.
(1950). Unitizing and categorizating problems in coding qualitative data. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 6, 47-58.
40.
Hample, D.
, & Dallinger, J. (1992). The use of multiple goals in cognitive editing of arguments. Argumentation and Advocacy, 28, 109-122.
41.
Harrison, A. A.
, Hwalek, M., Raney, D. F., & Fritz, J. G. (1978). Cues to deception in an interview situation. Social Psychology, 41, 156-161.
42.
Herrmann, T.
(1982). Language and situation: The pars pro toto principle. In C. Fraser, & K. Scherer (Eds.), Advances in the social psychology of language (pp. 111-149). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
43.
Hewitt, J. P.
, & Hall, P. M. (1973). Social problems, problematic situations, and quasi-theories. American Sociological Review, 38, 367-374.
44.
Hobbs, J. R.
(1979). Coherence and coference. Cognitive Science, 3, 67-90.
45.
Hollenbeck, J. R.
, & Klein, H. J. (1987). Goal commitment and goal-setting process: Problems, prospects, and proposals for future research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 212-220.
46.
Hollenbeck, J. R.
, & Williams, C. R. (1987). Goal importance, self-focus, and the goal setting process. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 204-211.
47.
Holtgraves, T.
, & Yang, J. N. (1990). Politeness as universal: Cross-cultural perceptions of request strategies and inferences based on their use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 719-729.
48.
Huber, V. L.
, & Neale, M. A. (1987). Effects of self- and competitor goals on performance in an interdependent bargaining task. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 197-203.
49.
Hyland, M. E.
(1988). Motivational control theory: An integrative framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 642-651.
50.
Ifert, D. E.
, & Roloff, M. E. (1994). Anticipated obstacles to compliance: Predicting their presence and expression. Communication Studies, 45, 120-129.
51.
Ifert, D. E.
, & Roloff, M. E. (1997). Overcoming expressed obstacles to compliance: The role of sensitivity of expression to others and ability to modify self-presentation. Communication Quarterly, 45, 55-67.
52.
Jacobs, S.
, & Jackson, S. (1983). Strategy and structure in conversational influence attempts. Communication Monographs, 50, 285-304.
53.
Kellermann, K.
(1988, March). Understanding tactical choice: Metagoals in conversation. Paper presented at the Temple University Conference on Goals and Discourse, Philadelphia, PA.
54.
Klein, W. M.
, & Kunda, Z. (1994). Exaggerated self-assessments and the preference for controllable risks. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 59, 410-427.
55.
Knapp, M. L.
, Stafford, L., & Daly, J. A. (1986). Regrettable messages: Things people wish they hadn't said. Journal of Communication, 36, 40-58.
56.
Levelt, W.J.M.
(1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
57.
Locke, E. A.
, & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal-setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
58.
Martin, L. L.
, & Tesser, A. (1989). Toward a motivational and structural theory of ruminative thought. In J. S. Uleman & J. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 306-326). New York: Guilford.
59.
McLaughlin, M. L.
(1984). Conversation: How talk is organized. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
60.
McLaughlin, M. L.
, Cody, M. J., & O'Hair, H. D. (1983). The management of failure events: Some contextual determinants of accounting behavior. Human Communication Research, 9, 208-224.
61.
McWhinney, B.
, Keenan, J., & Reinke, P. (1982). The role of arousal in memory for cognition. Memory and Cognition, 10, 308-317.
62.
Meyer, J. R.
(1994). Formulating plans for requests: An investigation of retrieval processes. Communication Studies, 45, 131-144.
63.
Miller, L. C.
, Cody, M. J., & McLaughlin, M. L. (1994). Situations and goals as fundamental constructs in interpersonal communication research. In M. L. Knapp & G. R. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (2nd ed., pp. 162-198). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
64.
Miller, L. C.
, & Read, S. J. (1991). A knowledge-structure approach to relationships. In G. Fletcher & F. Fincham (Eds.), Cognition in close relationships (pp. 69-100). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
65.
Mongeau, P. A.
, Hale, J. L., & Alles, M. (1994). An experimental investigation of accounts and attributions following sexual infidelity. Communication Monographs, 61, 326-344.
66.
O'Keefe, B. J.
, & McCornack, S. A. (1987). Message design logic and message goal structure: Effects on perceptions of message quality in regulative communicative situations. Human Communication Research, 14, 68-92.
67.
Paterson, R. J.
, & Neufeld, R. W. (1987). Clear danger: Situational determinants of the appraisal of threat. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 404-416.
68.
Perry, R. P.
, & Boyd, J. E. (1974). The effect of message length, motivation, and object person information on communicating personality impressions. Journal of Social Psychology, 92, 115-125.
69.
Pervin, L. A.
(Ed.). (1989). Goal concepts in personality and social psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
70.
Planalp, S.
, & Honeycutt, J. M. (1985). Events that increase uncertainty in relationships. Human Communication Research, 11, 593-604.
71.
Poole, M. S.
, & McPhee, R. D. (1994). Methodology in interpersonal communication research. In M. L. Knapp & G. R. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (2nd ed., pp. 42-100). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
72.
Read, S. J.
(1992). Constructing accounts: The role of explanatory experience. In M. L. McLaughlin, M. J. Cody, & S. J. Read (Eds.), Explaining oneself to others: Reason-giving in a social context (pp. 3-20). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
73.
Riordan, C. A.
, Marlin, N. A., & Kellogg, R. T. (1983). The effectiveness of accounts following transgression. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46, 213-219.
74.
Roedel, T.
, & Schraw, G. (1995). Beliefs about intelligence and academic goals. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20, 464-468.
75.
Roloff, M. E.
, & Janiszewski, C. A. (1989). Overcoming obstacles to interpersonal compliance: A principle of message construction. Human Communication Research, 16, 33-61.
76.
Roloff, M. E.
, Janiszewski, C. A., McGrath, M. A., Burns, C. S., & Manrai, L. A. (1988). Acquiring resources from intimates: When obligation substitutes for persuasion. Human Communication Research, 14, 364-396.
77.
Samp, J. A.
, & Solomon, D. H. (1998). Communicative responses to problematic events in close relationships I: The variety and facets of goals. Communication Research, 25, 66-95.
78.
Schlenker, B. R.
(1980). Impression management: The self concept, social identity, and interpersonal relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
79.
Schrader, D. C., & Dillard, J. P. (In press). Goal structures and interpersonal influence. Communication Studies.
80.
Scott, C. K.
, Fuhrman, R. W., & Wyer, R. S., Jr. (1991). Information processing in close relationships. In G.J.O. Fletcher & F. D. Fincham (Eds.), Cognition in close relationships (pp. 37-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
81.
Sharkey, W. F.
, & Kim, M. (1994, November). The effect of embarassability on perceived importance of conversational constraints. Paper presented at the 80th Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, New Orleans, LA.
82.
Sillars, A. L.
(1980). Attributions and communication in roommate conflicts. Communication Monographs, 47, 180-200.
83.
Snow, D. A.
, & Anderson, L. (1987). Identity work among the homeless: The verbal construction and avowal of personal identities. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 1336-1371.
84.
Stafford, L.
, Burggraff, C., & Sharkey, W. (1987). Conversational memory: The effects of time, recall mode, and memory expectancies on natural conversation. Human Communication Research, 14, 203-229.
85.
Stafford, L.
, & Daly, J. A. (1984). Conversational memory: The effects of recall mode and memory expectancies on natural conversation. Human Communication Research, 10, 379-402.
86.
Taylor, S. E.
, & Crocker, J. (1981). Schematic bases of social information processing. In E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, & M. P. Hanna (Eds.), Social cognition: The Ontario symposium (pp. 89-134). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
87.
Thagard, P.
(1989). Explanatory coherence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 435-467.
88.
Thoits, P. A.
(1983). Dimensions of life events that influence psychological distress: An evaluation and synthesis of the literature. In L. Pearlman (Ed.), Psychological stress (pp. 33-103). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
89.
Turnbull, W.
(1992). A conversation approach to explanation, with emphasis on politeness and accounting. In M. L. McLaughlin, M. J. Cody, & S. J. Read (Eds.), Explaining oneself to others: Reason-giving in a social context (pp. 105-130). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
90.
Van Dam, G.
, & Brinkerink, C. M. (1990). The influence of experimenter-provided elaborations on recall of plot-irrelevant paragraphs from a text. Journal of General Psychology, 17, 15-25.
91.
Wilson, J.
(1989). On the boundaries of conversation. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
92.
Wilson, S. R.
, Aleman, C. G., & Leatham, G. B. (1998). Identity implications of influence goals: A revised analysis of face-threatening acts and application to seeking compliance with same-sex friends. Human Communication Research, 25, 39-64.
93.
Wilson, S. R.
, & Putnam, L. L. (1990). Interaction goals in negotiation. In J. A. Anderson (Ed.), Communication yearbook 13 (pp. 374-406). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
94.
Wyer, R. S., Jr.
, & Gruenfeld, D. H. (1995). Information processing in interpersonal communication. In D. E. Hewes (Ed.), The cognitive bases of interpersonal communication (pp. 7-47). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
