The purpose of this article is to examine research evidence on knowledge gaps and to ask how strong this evidence is, particularly when amount of mass media publicity is taken into account. Many varying characteristics of 58 studies with relevant data are analyzed. Theoretical and methodological differences among the studies are pointed out, and some conclusions drawn about media effects on knowledge disparities and conditions under which knowledge gaps may or may not occur. Some reasons for conflicting results in the literature are explained, and suggestions are made for future research on knowledge differentials.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ABBOTT, E. A.
(1978) “Effects of year-long newspaper energy series on reader knowledge and action.” Presented to the Association for Education in Journalism, University of Washington, Seattle.
2.
ABRAMOWITZ, A.
(1977) “The first debate: a study of attitude change.”Williamsburg, VA: College of William and Mary. (mimeo)
3.
ADAMS, J. B.
, J. J. MULLEN, and H. M. WILSON (1969) “Diffusion of a `minor' foreign affairs news event.”Journalism Q. 46: 545-551.
4.
ADONI, H.
and A. A. COHEN (1978) “Television economic news and the social construction of economic reality.”J. of Communication28, 4: 61-70.
5.
ALLEN, I. L.
and J. D. COLFAX (1968) “The diffusion of news of LBJ's March 31 decision.”Journalism Q. 45: 321-324.
6.
ATKIN, C. K.
, J. GALLOWAY, and O. B. NAYMAN (1976) “News media exposure, political knowledge and campaign interest.”Journalism Q. 53: 231-237.
7.
BAILEY, G. A.
(1971) “The Public, the Media, and the Knowledge Gap,”J. of Environmental Education2, 4: 3-8.
8.
BALL, S.
and G. A. BOGATZ (1970) The First Year of Sesame Street: An Evaluation. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
9.
BECKER, L. B.
, I. A. SOBOWALE, R. E. COBBEY, and C. H. EYAL (1978) “Debates' effects on voters' understanding of candidates and issues,” in G. F. Bishop et al. (eds.) The Presidential Debates. New York: Praeger.
10.
BECKER, L. B.
and D. C. WHITNEY (1980) “Effects of media dependencies: audience assessment of government.”Communication Research7: 95-120.
11.
BELTRAN, L. R.
(1975) “Research ideologies in conflict.”J. of Communication25, 2: 187-193.
12.
BENTON, M.
and P. J. FRAZIER (1976) “The agenda setting function of the mass media at three levels of `information holding.'”Communication Research3: 261-274.
13.
BERELSON, B. R.
, P. F. LAZARSFELD, and W. N. MCPHEE (1954) Voting: a Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
14.
BISHOP, G. F.
, R. W. OLDENDICK, and A. J. TUCHFARBER (1978) “The Presiential debates as a device for increasing the `rationality' of electoral behavior,” in G. F. Bishop et al. (eds.) The Presidential Debates. New York: Praeger.
15.
BOGART, L.
(1957-1958) “Measuring the effectiveness of an overseas information campaign: a case history.”Public Opinion Q. 21: 475-498.
16.
BOGART, L.
(1950-1951) “Spread of news on a local event: a case history.”Public Opinion Q. 14: 769-772.
17.
BOGATZ, G. A.
and S. BALL (1972) The Second Year of Sesame Street: A Continuing Evaluation. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
18.
BRINTON, J. E.
and L. N. MCKOWN (1961) “Effects of newspaper reading on knowledge and attitude.”Journalism Q. 38: 187-195.
19.
BROWN, J. W.
, J. S. ETTEMA, and R. V. LUEPKER (1981) “Knowledge gap effects in a cardiovascular information campaign.” Presented to the Association for Education in Journalism, East Lansing, MI.
20.
BUDD, R. W.
, M. S. MacLEAN, Jr., and A. M. BARNES (1966) “Regularities in the diffusion of two major news events.”Journalism Q. 43: 221-230.
21.
BULTENA, G. L.
, D. L. ROGERS, and K. A. CONNER (1978) “Toward explaining citizens' knowledge about a proposed reservoir.”J. of Environmental Education9, 2: 24-36.
22.
BUSS, T. F.
and C. R. HOFSTETTER (1981) “Communication, information and participation during an emerging crisis.”Social Sci. Journal18: 81-91.
23.
CAMPBELL, D. T.
and J. C. STANLEY (1963) Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally.
24.
CHILDERS, T.
with J. A. POST (1975) The Information-Poor in America. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow.
25.
CLARKE, P.
and F. G. KLINE (1974) “Media effects reconsidered: some new strategies for communication research.”Communication Research1: 224-240.
26.
COLEMAN, J. S.
, et al. [“the Coleman report”] (1966) Equality of Educational Opportunity: Summary. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
27.
COOK, T. D.
, H. APPLETON, R. F. CONNER, A. SHAFFER, G. A. TAMKIN, and S. J. WEBER (1975) Sesame Street Revisited. New York: Russell Sage.
28.
DAVIS, D. K.
(1977) “Assessing the role of mass communication in social processes: a comment on decline and fall at the White House.'”Communication Research4: 23-34.
29.
DERVIN, B.
(1980) “Communication gaps and inequities: moving toward a reconceptualization,” in B. Dervin and M. J. Voigt (eds.) Progress in Communication Sciences, Vol. II. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
30.
DEUTSCHMANN, P. J.
(1963) “The mass media in an underdeveloped village.”Journalism Q. 40: 27-35.
31.
DEUTSCHMANN, P. J.
and W. A. DANIELSON (1960) “Diffusion of knowledge of the major news story.”Journalism Q. 37: 345-355.
32.
DONOHUE, G. A.
, P. J. TICHENOR, and C. N. OLIEN (1975) “Mass media and the knowledge gap: a hypothesis reconsidered.”Communication Research2: 3-23.
33.
DOUGLAS, D. F.
, B. W. WESTLEY, and S. H. CHAFFEE (1970) “An information campaign that changed community attitudes.”Journalism Q. 47: 479-487, 492.
34.
DOUGLASS, C. W.
and D. C. STACEY (eds.) (1972) “Demographical characteristics and social factors related to public opinion on fluoridation.”J. of Public Health Dentistry32, 2: 128-134.
35.
EDELSTEIN, A. S.
(1973) “Decision-making and mass communication: a conceptual and methodological approach to public opinion,” in P. Clarke (ed.) New Model for Mass Communication Research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
36.
EGUEKE, C. G. (1979) “Involvement in news events and the knowledge gap hypothesis.” Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin.
37.
ERSKINE, H. G.
(1963a) “The polls: exposure to domestic information.”Public Opinion Q. 27: 491-500.
38.
ERSKINE, H. G.
(1963b) “The polls: exposure to international information.”Public Opinion Q. 27: 658-662.
39.
ERSKINE, H. G.
(1963c) “The polls: textbook knowlege.”Public Opinion Q. 27: 133-141.
40.
ERSKINE, H. G.
(1962) “The polls: the informed public.”Public Opinion Q. 26: 669-677.
41.
ETTEMA, J. S.
and F. G. KLINE (1977) “Deficits, differences, and ceilings: contingent conditions for understanding the knowledge gap.”Communication Research4: 179-202.
42.
FATHI, A.
(1973) “Diffusion of a `happy' news event.”Journalism Q. 50: 271-277.
43.
FRAZIER, P. J.
(1981) “Trends in attitudes toward fluoridation.” Paper presented to the American Association for Public Opinion Research. Buck Hill Falls, PA (May).
44.
FRY, D. L.
(1979) “The knowledge gap hypothesis and media dependence: an initial study.” Paper presented to Association for Education in Journalism, University of Houston, TX.
45.
GALLOWAY, J. J.
(1977) “The analysis and significance of communication effects gaps.”Communication Research4: 363-386.
46.
Gallup Omnibus
, The (Gallup poll) (1977) “A Survey Concerning Water Fluoridation.” (Appendix II.) Princeton, NJ: The Gallup Organization.
47.
GANTZ, W.
(1978) “How uses and gratifications affect recall of television news.”Journalism Q. 55: 664-672, 681.
48.
GAZIANO, C. (1983a) Neighborhood Newspapers, Citizen Groups, and Knowledge Gaps on Public Affairs Issues. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Minnesota.
49.
GAZIANO, C.
(1983b) “Social stratification and the knowledge gap: some influences on knowledge disparities.” Paper presented to the International Communication Association, Dallas (May 29).
50.
GAZIANO, C.
(1982) “The influence of news media and citizen groups on the knowledge gap in an inner-city neighborhood.” Paper presented to the American Association for Public Opinion Research, Hunt Valley, MD (May).
51.
GENOVA
, B.K.L. and B. S. GREENBERG (1979) “Interests in news and the knowledge gap.”Public Opinion Q. 43: 79-91.
52.
GORELICK, S. M. (No date) “Effects of the 1976 presidential debates: agenda-setting and issue learning.” Unpublished paper, Teachers college, Columbia University, New York.
53.
GRABER, D. A.
(1978) “Problems in measuring audience effects of the 1976 debates,” in G. f. Bishop et al. (eds.) The Presidential Debates: Media, Electoral, and Policy Perspectives. New York: Praeger.
54.
GREENBERG, B. S.
(1964) “Diffusion of news of the Kennedy assassination.”Public Opinion Q. 28: 225-232.
55.
GUNARATNE, S. A.
(1976) “Modernisation and knowledge: a study of four Ceylonese villages.”Communication Monographs. Singapore: Asian Mass Communication Research and Information Centre.
56.
HOFSTETTER, C. R.
, C. ZUKIN, and T. F. BUSS (1978) “Political imagery and information in an age of television.”Journalism Q. 55: 562-569.
57.
HYMAN, H. H.
and P. B. SHEATSLEY (1947) “Some reasons why information campaigns fail.”Public Opinion Q. 11: 412-423.
58.
JENCKS, C.
et al. (1972) Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in America. New York: Basic Books.
59.
KANERVO, E. W.
(1979) “How people acquire information: a model of the public affairs information attainment process.” Paper presented to the Association for Education in Journalism, University of Houston.
60.
KATZ, E.
, H. ADONI, and P. PARNESS (1977) “Remembering the news: what the picture adds to recall.”Journalism Q. 54: 231-239.
61.
KATZMAN, N.
(1974) “The impact of communication technology: promises and prospects.”J. of Communication24, 4: 47-58.
62.
KENT, K. E.
and R. R. RUSH (1976) “How communication behavior of older persons affects their public affairs knowledge.”Journalism Q. 53: 40-46.
63.
KRAUS, S.
, R. MEHLING, and E. EL-ASSAL (1963) “Mass media and the fallout controversy.”Public Opinion Q. 27: 191-205.
64.
LARSEN, O. N.
and R. J. HILL (1954) “Mass media and interpersonal communication in the diffusion of a news event.”Amer. Soc. Rev. 19: 426-433.
65.
LEVY, S. G.
(1969) “How population subgroups differed in knowledge of six assassinations.”Journalism Q. 46: 685-698.
66.
LIEBERT, R. M.
(1976) “Evaluating the evaluators.”J. of Communication26, 2: 165-171.
67.
LOUNSBURY, J. W.
, E. SUNDSTROM, and R. C. DeVAULT (1979) “Moderating effects of respondent knowledge in public opinion research.”J. of Applied Psychology64: 558-563.
68.
McNELLY, J. T.
and P. J. DEUTSCHMANN (1963) “Media use and socioeconomic status in a Latin American capital.”Gazette9, 1: 1-15.
69.
McNELLY, J. T.
and J. R. MOLINA (1972) “Communication, stratification and international affairs information in a developing urban society.”Journalism Q. 49: 316-326, 339.
70.
McNELLY, J. T.
, R. R. RUSH, and M. E. BISHOP (1968) “Cosmopolitan media usage in the diffusion of international affairs news.”Journalism Q. 45: 329-332.
71.
MEDALIA, N. Z.
and O. N. LARSEN (1958) “Diffusion and belief in a collective delusion: the Seattle windshield pitting epidemic.”Amer. Soc. Rev. 23: 180-186.
72.
MILLER, A. H.
and MacKUEN (1979) “Learning about the candidates: the 1976 presidential debates.”Public Opinion Q. 43: 326-346.
73.
MINTON, J. H. (1972) “The impact of Sesame Street on reading readiness of kindergarten children.” Ph.D. dissertation, Fordham University.
74.
MIYO, Y.
(1983) “Knowledge-gap hypothesis and media dependency: is television a knowledge leveler?” Paper presented to the International Communication Association, Dallas (May).
75.
NEUMAN, W. R.
(1976) “Patterns of recall among television news viewers.”Public Opinion Q. 40: 115-123.
76.
NNAEMEKA, T.I.O. (1976) “Issue legitimation, mass media functions and public knowledge of social issues.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota.
77.
NOWAK, K.
(1977) “From information gaps to communication potential,” in M. Berg et al. (eds.) Current Theories in Scandinavian Mass Communication Research. Grenaa, Denmark: GMT.
78.
OLIN, C. N.
, P. J. TICHENOR, and G. A. DONOHUE (1982) “Structure communication, and social power: evolution of the knowledge gap hypothesis.” Paper presented at “Sommatie '82” conference, Veldhoven, The Netherlands (March 26).
79.
PALMGREEN, P.
(1979) “Mass media use and political knowledge.”Journalism Monographs, No. 61 (May).
80.
ROBINSON, J. P.
(1972) “Mass communication and information diffusion,” in F. Gerald Kline et al. (eds.) Current Perspectives in Mass Communications Research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
81.
ROBINSON, J. P.
(1967) “World affairs information and mass media exposure.”Journalism A. 44: 23-31.
82.
ROGERS, E. M.
(1981) “Methodology for meta-research.” Presidential address paper presented to the International Communication Association, Minneapolis (May 21-25).
83.
ROGERS, E. M.
(1976) “Communication and development: the passing of the dominant paradigm.”Communication Research3: 213-240.
84.
ROGERS, E. M.
(1965-1966) “Mass media exposure and modernization among Colombian peasants.”Public Opinion Q. 29: 614-625.
85.
ROLING, N. G.
, J. ASCROFT, and F. WA CHEGE (1976) “The diffusion of innovations and the issue of equity in rural development.”Communication Research3: 155-170.
86.
RYAN, B.
(1952) “The ceylonese village and the new value system.”Rural Sociology17: 9-28.
87.
SALOMON, G.
(1976) “Cognitive skill learning across cultures.”J. of Communication26, 2: 138-144.
88.
SAMUELSON, M. E. (1960) “Some news-seeking behavior in a newspaper strike.” Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University.
89.
SAMUELSON, M. E.R. F. CARTER
and L. RUGGELS (1963) “Education, available time, and use of mass media.”Journalism Q. 40: 491-496, 617.
90.
SCHERER, C. W. (1977) “Differential knowledge gain from a media campaign: a field experiment. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin.
91.
SCHREIBER, E. M.
(1978) “Education and change in American opinions on a woman for President.”Public Opinion Q. 42: 171-182.
92.
SHINGI, P. M.
and B. MODY(1976) “The communication effects gap: a field experiment on television and agricultural ignorance in India.”Communication Research3: 171-190.
93.
SMITH, A. G.
(1975) “The primary resource.”J. of Communication25, 2: 15-20.
94.
SPITZER, S. P.
and N. K. DENZIN (1965) “Levels of knowledge in an emergent crisis.”Social Forces44: 234-237.
95.
STAR, S. A.
and H. M. HUGHES (1950) “Report on an educational campaign: the Cincinnati plan for the United Nations.”Amer. J. of Sociology55: 389-400.
96.
STAUFFER, J.
, R. FROST, and W. RYBOLT (1978) “Literacy, illiteracy, and learning from television news.”Communication Research5: 221-232.
97.
SUOMINEN, E.
(1976) “Who needs information and why.”J. of Communication26, 4: 115-119.
98.
TAINTER, S. P. (1978) “Local media coverage of community issues: does it widen the knowledge gap?” Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin.
99.
TICHENOR, P. J.
, G. A. DONOHUE, and C. N. OLIEN (1980) “Conflict and the knowledge gap.”Community Conflict and the Press. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
100.
TICHENOR, P. J.
(1970) “Mass media flow and differential growth in knowledge.”Public Opinion Q. 34: 159-170.
101.
TICHENOR, P. J.
, J. M. RODENKIRCHEN, C. N. OLIEN, and G. A. DONOHUE (1973) Community issues, conflict, and public afairs knowledge,” in Peter Clarke (ed.) New Models for Mass Communication Research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
102.
TORSVIK, P.
(1972) “Television and information.”Scandinavian Pol. Studies7: 215-234.
103.
TROLDAHL, V. C.
(1965) “Studies of Consumption of Mass Media Content.”Journalism Q. 42: 596-614.
104.
WADE, S.
and W. SCHRAMM (1969) “The mass media as sources of public affairs, science, and health knowledge.”Public Opinion Q. 33: 197-209.
105.
WEAVER, D. H.
(1978) “A summary of newspaper social effects research.” Paper presented to the Association for Education in Journalism, University of Washington, Seattle.
106.
WERNER, A.
(1975) “A case of sex and class socialization.”J. of Communication25, 4: 45-50.
