Pornography Consumption,Education,and Support for Same-Sex Marriage Among Adult U.S. Males

Abstract

Many consider same-sex marriage the civil rights issue of our time. Although support is on the rise, there are some Americans who oppose same-sex marriage. Heterosexual males are a demographic group particularly likely to oppose same-sex marriage. Mass media and education are often thought of as important agents of socialization in American culture. Pornography in particular is a platform often discussed in terms of its impact on males’ sexual attitudes. This study used nationally representative three-wave longitudinal data gathered from adult U.S. males to examine the over-time interplay between pornography consumption, education, and support for same-sex marriage. Support for same-sex marriage did not prospectively predict pornography consumption, but pornography consumption did prospectively predict support for same-sex marriage. Education was also positively associated with support for same-sex marriage. Scientific and social implications of these findings are discussed.

Keywords

same-sex marriage pornography education selective exposure

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aiken

L. S.

West

S. G.

(1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Allen

D’Alessio

Brezgel

(1995). A meta-analysis summarizing the effects of pornography II: Aggression after exposure. Human Communication Research, 22, 258-283.

Allen

D’Alessio

Emmers

T. M.

Gebhardt

(1996). The role of educational briefings in mitigating effects of experimental exposure to violent sexually explicit material: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sex Research, 33, 135-141.

Allen

Emmers

T. M.

Gebhardt

Giery

(1995). Pornography and rape myth acceptance. Journal of Communication, 45, 5-26.

Bandura

(2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3, 265-299.

Baunach

D. M.

(2012). Changing same-sex marriage attitudes in America from 1988-2010. Public Opinion Quarterly, 76, 364-378.

Becker

A. B.

Scheufele

D. A.

(2011). New voters, new outlook? Predispositions, social networks, and the changing politics of gay civil rights. Social Science Quarterly, 92, 324-345.

Bennett

W. L.

Iyengar

(2008). A new era of minimal effects? The changing foundations of political communication. Journal of Communication, 58, 707-731.

Benotsch

E. G.

Martin

A. M.

Espil

F. M.

Nettles

C. D.

Seal

D. W.

Pinkerton

S. D.

(2011). Internet use, recreational travel, and HIV risk behaviors in men who have sex with men. Journal of Community Health, 36, 398-405.

10.

Berkowitz

Donnerstein

(1982). External validity is more than skin deep: Some answers to criticisms of laboratory experiments. American Psychologist, 37, 245-257.

11.

Berkowitz

Rogers

K. H.

(1986). A priming effect analysis of media influence. In Bryant

Zillmann

(Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 57-81). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

12.

Bogaert

A. F.

Woodard

Hafer

C. L.

(1999). Intellectual ability and reactions to pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 283-291.

13.

Braun-Courville

D. K.

Rojas

(2009). Exposure to sexually explicit web sites and adolescent sexual attitude and behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 156-162.

14.

Bridges

A. J.

Wosnitzer

Scharrer

Sun

Liberman

(2010). Aggression and sexual behavior in best-selling pornography videos: A content analysis update. Violence Against Women, 16, 1065-1085.

15.

Brown

J. D.

L’Engle

K. L.

(2009). X-Rated: Sexual attitude and behaviors associated with U.S. early adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36, 129-151.

16.

Brown

J. D.

L’Engle

K. L.

Pardun

C. J.

Guo

Kenneavy

Jackson

(2006). Sexy media matter: Exposure to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines predicts black and white adolescents’ sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 117, 1018-1027.

17.

Bruni

(2011, October 31). Race, religion, and same-sex marriage. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/01/opinion/bruni-same-sex-marriage-and-blacks.html

18.

Bryant

Rockwell

S. C.

(1994). Effects of massive exposure to sexually oriented prime-time television programming on adolescents’’ moral judgment. In Zillmann

Bryant

Huston

A. C.

(Eds.), Media, children, and the family (pp. 183-195). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

19.

Campbell

D. E.

Monson

J. Q.

(2008). The religion card: Gay marriage and the 2004 presidential election. Public Opinion Quarterly, 72, 399-419.

20.

Carroll

J. S.

Padilla-Walker

L. M.

Nelson

L. J.

Olson

C. D.

McNamara Barry

Madsen

S. D.

(2008). Generation XXX: Pornography acceptance and use among emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23, 6-30.

21.

Cohen

B. C.

(1963). The press and foreign policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

22.

Conservative vs. liberal: Gay marriage. (2012, February 19). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://opinion.latimes.com/opinionla/2012/02/conservative-vs-liberal-gay-marriage.html

23.

Cooper

Morahan-Martin

Mathy

R. M.

Maheu

(2002). Toward an increased understanding of user demographics in online sexual activities. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 28, 105-129.

24.

Cotton

J. L.

(1985). Cognitive dissonance in selective exposure. In Zillmann

Bryant

(Eds.), Selective exposure to communication (pp. 11-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

25.

Curtis

H. E.

(2012, March 31). Parchment and quill. Retrieved from http://hecurtis.wordpress.com/2012/03/31/pen-book-and-quill/

26.

D’Alessio

Allen

(2007). The selective exposure hypothesis and media choice processes. In Preiss

R. W.

Gayle

B. M.

Burrell

Allen

Bryant

(Eds.), Mass media effects research (pp. 103-118). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.

27.

Davis

J. A.

Smith

T. W.

(2010). General Social Surveys, 1972-2008. Chicago, IL: National Opinion Research Center.

28.

Denney

N. W.

(1995). Critical thinking during the adult years. Experimental Aging Research, 21, 191-207.

29.

Denny

(2011). Civic returns to education: Its effect on homophobia. Retrieved from http://ideas.repec.org/p/ucd/wpaper/201109.html

30.

DeVellis

R. F.

(1991). Scale development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

31.

Dowd

(2011, June 25). Why is he bi? (sigh). New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/26/opinion/sunday/26dowd.html

32.

Ferguson

C. J.

Hartley

R. D.

(2009). The pleasure is momentary . . . the expense damnable? The influence of pornography on rape and sexual assault. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 323-329.

33.

Festinger

(1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row Peterson.

34.

Foubert

J. D.

Brosi

M. W.

Bannon

R. S.

(2011). Pornography viewing among fraternity men: Effects on bystander intervention, rape myth acceptance, and behavioral intent to commit sexual assault. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 18, 212-231.

35.

Frable

Johnson

A. E.

Kellman

(1997). Seeing masculine men, sexy women, and gender differences: Exposure to pornography and cognitive constructions of gender. Journal of Personality, 65, 311-354.

36.

Gagnon

J. H.

Simon

(1973). Sexual conduct: The social sources of human sexuality. Chicago, IL: Aldine.

37.

Garcia

. (1986). Exposure to pornography and attitudes about women and rape: A correlational study. Journal of Sex Research, 22, 378-385.

38.

Gerbner

Gross

Morgan

Signorielli

(1980). The mainstreaming of America: Violence profile No. 11. Journal of Communication, 30, 10-29.

39.

Gerbner

Gross

Morgan

Signorielli

(1994). Growing up with television: The cultivation perspective. In Bryant

Zillmann

(Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 17-41). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

40.

Grudzen

C. R.

Elliott

M. N.

Kerndt

P. R.

Schuster

M. A.

Brooks

R. H.

Gelberg

(2009). Condom use and high-risk sexual acts in adult films: A comparison of heterosexual and homosexual films. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 1-5.

41.

Gunter

(2002). Media sex: What are the issues? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

42.

Haddock

Zanna

M. P.

(1998). Authoritarianism, values, and the favorability and structure of antigay attitudes. In Herek

(Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbian women, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 82-107). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

43.

Hald

G. M.

Malamuth

N. M.

Yuen

(2010). Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: Revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies. Aggressive Behavior, 36, 14-20.

44.

Hawkins

(2012). Five reasons to oppose gay marriage. Rightwing News. Retrieved from http://www.rightwingnews.com/john-hawkins/five-reasons-to-oppose-gay-marriage/

45.

Hennessy

Bleakley

Fishbein

Jordan

(2009). Estimating the longitudinal association between adolescent sexual behavior and exposure to sexual media content. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 1-11.

46.

Herek

G. M.

(1984). Beyond “homophobia”: A social psychological perspective on attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 10, 1-21.

47.

Herek

G. M.

(1991). Stigma, prejudice, and violence against lesbians and gay men. In Gonsiorek

J. C.

Weinrich

J. D.

(Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy (pp. 60-80). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

48.

Herek

G. M.

(2006). Legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the United States: A social science perspective. American Psychologist, 61, 607-621.

49.

Howell

D. C.

(2002). Statistical method for psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Duxbury.

50.

Huesmann

L. R.

(1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 125-139.

51.

Huesmann

L. R.

(1988). An information processing model for the development of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 13-24.

52.

Huesmann

L. R.

(1998). The role of social information processing and cognitive schema in the acquisition and maintenance of habitual aggressive behavior. In Geen

R. G.

Donnerstein

(Eds.), Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for policy (pp. 73-109). New York, NY: Academic Press.

53.

Jensen

(2007). Pornography and the end of masculinity. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.

54.

Kain

(2011, May 20). Sea change in attitudes toward gay marriage. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2011/05/20/sea-change-in-attitudes-toward-gay-marriage/

55.

Keiller

S. W.

(2010). Masculine norms as correlates of heterosexual men’s attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 11, 38-52.

56.

Kingston

D. A.

Malamuth

Fedoroff

Marshall

W. L.

(2009). The importance of individual differences in pornography use: Theoretical perspectives and implications for treating sexual offenders. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 216-232.

57.

Kite

M. E.

Whitley

B. E.

(1996). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 336-353.

58.

Kjellgren

Priebe

Svedin

Langstrom

(2010). Sexually coercive behavior in male youth: Population survey of general and specific risk factors. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 1161-1169.

59.

Klapper

(1960). The effects of mass communication. New York, NY: Free Press.

60.

Kunkel

Eyal

Finnerty

Biely

Donnerstein

(2005). Sex on TV 4: A biennial report to the Kaiser Family Foundation. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.

61.

Laws

J. L.

Schwartz

(1977). Sexual scripts: The social construction of female sexuality. Hinsdale, IL: Dryden.

62.

Legislature should vote for same-sex marriage, not leave question up to voters. (2012, April 15). The Seattle Times. Retrieved from http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/editorials/2017379320_edit31referendum.html

63.

Lewis

G. B.

(2005, November). Thinking about gay marriage: Putting the moral condemnation back in morality policy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management, Washington, DC.

64.

Lewis

G. B.

Gossett

C. W.

(2008). Changing public opinion on same-sex marriage: The case of California. Politics & Policy, 36, 4-30.

65.

Linz

Malamuth

(1993). Pornography. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

66.

Little

T. D.

Card

N. A.

Preacher

K. J.

McConnell

(2009). Modeling longitudinal data from research on adolescence. In Lerner

R. M.

Steinberg

(Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (3rd ed., pp. 15-54). New York, NY: Wiley.

67.

Wei

(2005). Exposure to internet pornography and Taiwanese adolescents’ sexual attitude and behavior. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49, 221-237.

68.

Loftus

(2001). America’s liberalization in attitudes toward homosexuality, 1973 to 1998. American Sociological Review, 66, 762-782.

69.

Luciano

(2012). The complete idiot’s guide to opposing same-sex marriage. Policymic. Retrieved from http://www.policymic.com/articles/8190/the-complete-idiot-s-guide-to-opposing-same-sex-marriage

70.

Maddox

A. M.

Rhoades

G. K.

Markman

H. J.

(2011). Viewing sexually-explicit materials alone or together: Associations with relationship quality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 441-448.

71.

Malamuth

(1996). Sexually explicit media, gender differences, and evolutionary theory. Journal of Communication, 46, 8-31.

72.

Malamuth

N. M.

Hald

G. M.

Koss

(2012). Pornography, individual differences in risk and men’s acceptance of violence against women in a representative sample. Sex Roles, 66, 427-439.

73.

Maloney

(2012, April 15). Illinois not ready to say “‘I do’” to gay marriage. Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved from http://www.suntimes.com/news/11868177-418/illinois-not-ready-to-say-i-do-to-gay-marriage.html

74.

McCombs

M. E.

Shaw

D. L.

(1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-187.

75.

McGuire

W. J.

(1985). Attitudes and attitude change. In Lindsey

Aronson

(Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 233-346). New York, NY: Random House.

76.

Morgan

E. M.

(2011). Associations between young adults’ use of sexually explicit materials and their sexual preferences, behaviors, and satisfaction. Journal of Sex Research, 48, 520-530.

77.

Mundorf

Allen

D’Alessio

Emmers-Sommer

T. M.

(2007). Effects of sexually explicit media. In Preiss

R. W.

Gayle

B. M.

Burrell

Allen.

Bryant

(Eds.), Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 181-198). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.

78.

National Opinion Research Center. (2011a). GSS codebook. Appendix A: Sampling design and weighting. Retrieved from http://www.norc.uchicago.edu/GSS+Website/Documentation/

79.

National Opinion Research Center. (2011b). GSS panel release notes. Retrieved from http://www3.norc.org/GSS+Website/Download/SPSS+Format/

80.

Newport

(2011, May 20). For first time, majority of Americans favor legal gay marriage. Gallup. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/147662/first-time-majority-americans-favor-legal-gay-marriage.aspx

81.

Oddone-Paolucci

Genuis

Violato

(2000). A meta-analysis of the published research on the effects of pornography. In Violato

Oddone-Paolucci

Genuis

(Eds.), The changing family and child development (pp. 48-59). Aldershot, England: Ashgate.

82.

Olson

L. R.

Cadge

Harrison

J. T.

(2006). Religion and public opinion about same-sex marriage. Social Science Quarterly, 87, 340-360.

83.

Omori

Zhang

Y. B.

Allen

Ota

Imamura

(2011). Japanese college students’ media exposure to sexually explicit materials, perceptions of women, and sexually permissive attitudes. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 40, 93-110.

84.

Pappas

(March 23, 2012). Is porn bad for you? Santorum brings up tricky question. Live Science. Retrieved http://www.livescience.com/19251-pornography-effects-santorum.html

85.

Paul

(2009). Predicting internet pornography use and arousal: The role of individual difference variables. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 344-357.

86.

Persily

Egan

Wallsten

(2006). Gay marriage, public opinion and the courts (Public Law Working Paper No. 06-17). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Law School. Retrieved from http://www.law.upenn.edu/fac/npersily/gaymarriagessrn.pdf

87.

Peter

Valkenburg

P. M.

(2006). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit material on the Internet. Communication Research, 33, 178-204.

88.

Peter

Valkenburg

P. M.

(2010). Processes underlying the effects of adolescents’ use of sexually explicit internet material: The role of perceived realism. Communication Research, 37, 375-399.

89.

Peter

Valkenburg

P. M.

(2011a). The influence of sexually explicit Internet material and peers on stereotypical beliefs about women’s sexual roles: Similarities and differences between adolescents and adults. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 511-517.

90.

Peter

Valkenburg

P. M.

(2011b). The influence of sexually explicit Internet material on sexual risk behavior: A comparison of adolescents and adults. Journal of Health Communication, 16, 750-765.

91.

Pithers

R. T.

Soden

(2000). Critical thinking in education. Educational Research, 42, 237-249.

92.

Potter

W. J.

(2005). Media literacy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

93.

Rose

J. S.

Chassin

Presson

C. C.

Sherman

S. J.

(2000). Prospective predictors of smoking cessation: A logistic regression application. In Rose

J. S.

Chassin

Presson

C. C.

Sherman

S. J.

(Eds.), Multivariate applications in substance use research: New methods for new questions (pp. 289-317). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

94.

Rubin

A. M.

(2002). The uses-and-gratifications perspective on media effects. In Bryant

Zillmann

(Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 525-548). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

95.

Rubin

A. M.

Windahl

(1986). The uses and dependency model of mass communication. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 3, 184-189.

96.

Ruffin

(2011, December 28). It’s official: Gay is the new black. Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/monique-ruffin/gay-civil-rights_b_1168897.html

97.

Saar

M. S.

(2012, March 21). Porn, santorum, and the politics of the left. Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/malika-saada-saar/rick-santorum-porn_b_1369575.html

98.

Sabina

Wolak

Finkelhor

(2008). The nature and dynamics of internet pornography exposure for youth. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 691-693.

99.

Sun

Bridges

Wosnitzer

Scharrer

Liberman

(2008). A comparison of male and female directors in pornography: What happens when women are at the helm? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 312-325.

100.

Sutton

M. J.

Brown

Wilson

K. M.

Klein

J. D.

(2002). Shaking the tree of knowledge for forbidden fruit: Where adolescents learn about sexuality and contraception. In Brown

Steele

J. R.

Walsh-Childers

(Eds.), Sexual teens, sexual media (pp. 1-24). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

101.

The National Data Program for the Social Sciences. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.norc.uchicago.edu/GSS+Website/About+GSS/National+Data+Program+for+Social+Sciences/

102.

Vaisey

(2006). Education and its discontents: Overqualification in America, 1972-2002. Social Forces, 85, 835-864.

103.

Weinberg

M. S.

Williams

C. J.

Kleiner

Irizarry

(2010). Pornography, normalization, and empowerment. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 1389-1401.

104.

Wingood

G. M.

DiClemente

R. J.

Harrington

Davies

Hook

E. W.

M. K.

(2001). Exposure to x-rated movies and adolescents’ sexual and contraceptive-related attitude and behaviors. Pediatrics, 107, 1116-1119.

105.

Wright

P. J.

(2011a). Mass media effects on youth sexual behavior: Assessing the claim for causality. Communication Yearbook, 35, 343-386.

106.

Wright

P. J.

(2011b). U.S. males and pornography, 1973-2010: Consumption, predictors, correlates. Journal of Sex Research. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/00224499.2011.628132

107.

Wright

P. J.

(2012). A longitudinal analysis of U.S. adults’ pornography exposure: Sexual socialization, selective exposure, and the moderating role of unhappiness. Journal of Media Psychology, 24, 67-76.

108.

Wright

P. J.

(2013). A three-wave longitudinal analysis of preexisting beliefs, exposure to pornography, and attitude change. Communication Reports, 26(1), 13-25.

109.

Wright

P. J.

Arroyo

(in press). Internet pornography and U.S. women’s sexual behavior: Results from a national sample. Mass Communication and Society.

110.

Wright

P. J.

Malamuth

Donnerstein

(2012). Research on sex in the media: What do we know about effects on children and adolescents? In Singer

D. G.

Singer

J. L.

(Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 273-302). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

111.

Wright

P. J.

Randall

A. K.

(2012). Internet pornography exposure and risky sexual behavior among adult males in the United States. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 1410-1416.

112.

Wright

P. J.

Randall

A. K.

Arroyo

(2012). Father-daughter communication about sex moderates the association between exposure to MTV’s 16 and pregnant/teen mom and female students’ pregnancy-risk behavior. Sexuality & Culture. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s12119-012-9137-2

113.

Ybarra

M. L.

Mitchell

K. J.

Hamburger

Diener-West

Leaf

P. J.

(2011). X-rated material and perpetration of sexually aggressive behavior among children and adolescents: Is there a link? Aggressive Behavior, 37, 1-18.

114.

Zillmann

Bryant

(1982). Pornography, sexual callousness, and the trivialization of rape. Journal of Communication, 32, 10-21.

115.

Zillmann

Bryant

(1988). Effects of prolonged consumption of pornography on family values. Journal of Family Issues, 9, 518-544.