Although research has repeatedly demonstrated a link between adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit Internet material (SEIM) and sexual attitudes, the processes underlying this association are not well understood. More specifically, studies have pointed to a mediating role of perceived realism, but internally valid evidence is missing. To address these problems, the authors used data from a three-wave panel study among 959 Dutch adolescents.They investigated whether two dimensions of the perceived realism of SEIM— social realism and utility—mediated the impact of SEIM on adolescents’ instrumental attitudes toward sex (i.e., the notion of sex as primarily physical and casual rather than affectionate and relational). Structural equation modeling showed that more frequent use of SEIM increased both the perceived social realism and the perceived utility of SEIM. In turn, these two perceptions led to more instrumental attitudes toward sex. No evidence of reverse causality emerged.
American Association for Public Opinion Research. ( 2006). Standard definitions: Final dispositions of case codes and outcome rates for surveys. Retrieved April 1, 2008, from http://www.aapor.org/uploads/standarddefs_4.pdf
2.
Arnett, J.J. ( 2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469-480.
3.
Aubrey, J.S. ( 2006). Exposure to sexually objectifying media and body self-perceptions among college women: An examination of the selective exposure hypothesis and the role of moderating variables. Sex Roles, 55, 159-172.
4.
Bandalos, D.L., & Finney, S.J. ( 2001). Item parceling issues in structural equation modeling . In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: New developments and techniques (pp. 269-296). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
5.
Bogaert, A.F., Woodard, U., & Hafer, C.L. ( 1999). Intellectual ability and reactions to pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 283-291.
6.
Brosius, H.-B., Weaver, J.B., & Staab, J.F. ( 1993). Exploring the social and sexual reality of contemporary pornography. Journal of Sex Research, 30, 161-170.
7.
Brown, J.D. ( 2002). Mass media influences on sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 39, 42-45.
8.
Brown, J.D., & L’Engle, K.L. (2009). X-rated: Sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with U.S. early adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36, 129-151.
9.
Busselle, R.W. ( 2001). Television exposure, perceived realism, and exemplar accessibility in the social judgment process. Media Psychology , 3, 43-67.
10.
Busselle, R.W., & Greenberg, B.S. (2000). The nature of television realism judgments: A reevaluation of their conceptualization and measurement . Mass Communication & Society, 3, 249-268.
11.
Busselle, R.W., Ryabovolova, A., & Wilson, B. ( 2004). Ruining a good story: Cultivation, perceived realism and narrative. Communications, 29, 365-378.
12.
Cole, D.A., & Maxwell, S.E. ( 2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558-577.
13.
Cotton, J.L. ( 1985). Cognitive dissonance in selective exposure. In D. Zillmann & J. Bryant (Eds.), Selective exposure in communication (pp. 11-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
14.
Cowan, G., & Campbell, R.R. (1994). Racism and sexism in interracial pornography: A content-analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 18, 323-338.
15.
Cowan, G., Lee, C., Levy, D., & Snyder, D. ( 1988). Dominance and inequality in X-rated videocassettes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 299-311.
16.
Dorr, A., Kovaric, P., & Doubleday, C. ( 1990). Age and content influences on children’s perceptions of the realism of television families. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 34, 377-397.
17.
Duimel, M., & De Haan, J. (2007). Nieuwe links in het gezin [New links in the family]. The Hague, Netherlands: SCP.
18.
Eagly, A.H., & Chaiken, S. ( 1993). The psychology of attitudes. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
19.
Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R.J. (1993). An introduction to the bootstrap. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall.
20.
Eggermont, S. ( 2006). Television viewing and adolescents’ judgment of sexual request scripts: A latent growth curve analysis in early and middle adolescence. Sex Roles, 55, 457-468.
21.
Elliott, W.R., & Slater, D. ( 1980). Exposure, experience and perceived TV reality for adolescents . Journalism Quarterly, 57, 409-414.
22.
Ertel, H. ( 1990). Erotika und pornographie: Repräsentative befragung und psychophysiologische langzeitstudie zu konsum und wirkung [Erotica and pornography: Representative survey and psycho-physiological longitudinal study on consumption and effects]. Munich, Germany: PVU.
23.
Faulstich, W. ( 2000). Probleme der Pornographie-Debatte [Problems of the pornography debate]. In W. Faulstich (Ed.), Medienkulturen (pp. 139-144). Munich, Germany: Fink.
24.
Festinger, L. ( 1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row Peterson.
25.
Fisher, W.A., & Barak, A. ( 1991). Pornography, erotica, and behavior: More questions than answers. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 14, 65-83.
26.
Flood, M. ( 2007). Exposure to pornography among youth in Australia. Journal of Sociology, 43, 45-60.
27.
Ford, C.S., & Beach, F.A. ( 1951). Patterns of sexual behavior. New York : Harper & Brothers.
28.
Foucault, M. ( 1990). The history of sexuality. London: Penguin. (Original work published 1976).
29.
Gagnon, J.H., & Simon, W. ( 1973). Sexual conduct: The social sources of human sexuality . Chicago: Aldine.
30.
Greenberg, B.S. ( 1973). Gratifications of television viewing and their correlates for British children. In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The use of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research (pp. 71-92). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
31.
Greenberg, B.S., Linsangan, R., & Soderman, A. ( 1993). Adolescents’ reactions to television sex. In B. S. Greenberg, J. D. Brown, & N. L. Buerkel-Rothfuss (Eds.), Media, sex, and the adolescent (pp. 196-224). Creskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
32.
Greenberg, B.S., Neuendorf, K., Buerkel-Rothfuss, N., & Henderson, L. ( 1982). The soaps: What’s on and who cares? Journal of Broadcasting, 26, 519-535.
33.
Hald, G.M., & Malamuth, N.M. (2008). Self-perceived effects of pornography consumption. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 614-625.
34.
Hart, W., Albarracin, D., Eagly, A.H., Brechan, I., Lindberg, M.J., & Merrill, L. ( 2009). Feeling validated versus being correct: A meta-analysis of selective exposure to information. Psychological Bulletin , 135, 555-588.
35.
Heider, F. ( 1946). Attitudes and cognitive organization. Journal of Psychology, 21, 107-112.
36.
Hendrick, S., & Hendrick, C. ( 1987). Multidimensionality of sexual attitudes. Journal of Sex Research, 23, 502-526.
37.
Huesmann, L.R., Eron, L.D., Klein, R., Brice, P., & Fischer, P. ( 1983). Mitigating the imitation of aggressive behaviors by changing children’s attitudes about media violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 899-910.
38.
Huston, A.C., Wartella, E.A., & Donnerstein, E. (1998). Measuring the effects of sexual content in the media: A report to the Kaiser Family Foundation. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.
39.
Jensen, R., & Dines, G. ( 1998). The content of mass-marketed pornography. In G. Dines, R. Jensen & A. Russo (Eds.), Pornography: The production and consumption of inequality (pp. 65-100). New York: Routledge.
40.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. ( 1972). Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness . Cognitive Psychology, 3, 430-454.
41.
Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Meng, J.B. ( 2009). Looking the other way: Selective exposure to attitude-consistent and counterattitudinal political information. Communication Research, 36, 426-448.
42.
Konijn, E.A., Bijvank, M.N., & Bushman, B.J. ( 2007). I wish I were a warrior: The role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1038-1044.
Little, T.D., Cunningham, W.A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K.F. ( 2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151-173.
45.
Lo, V.-h., & Wei, R. ( 2005). Exposure to Internet pornography and Taiwanese adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49, 221-237.
46.
Malamuth, N.M., & Huppin, M. ( 2005). Pornography and teenagers: The importance of individual differences. Adolescent Medicine, 16, 315-326.
47.
Mathieu, J.E., Tannenbaum, S.I., & Salas, E. ( 1992). Influences of individual and situational characteristics on measures of training effectiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 828-847.
48.
Money, J. ( 1986). Lovemaps. New York: Irvington.
49.
Mustanski, B.S. ( 2001). Getting wired: Exploiting the Internet for the collection of sexually valid data. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 292-301.
50.
Nabi, R.L., Stitt, C.R., Halford, J., & Finnerty, K.L. (2006). Emotional and cognitive predictors of the enjoyment of reality-based and fictional television programming: An elaboration of the uses and gratifications perspective. Media Psychology, 8, 421-447.
51.
Oliver, M.B. ( 2002). Individual differences in media effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 507-524). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
52.
Osgood, C.E., & Tannenbaum, P.H. (1955). The principle of congruity in the prediction of attitude change. Psychological Review , 62, 42-55.
53.
Palmgreen, P., Wenner, L.A., & Rosengren, K.E. (1985). Uses and gratifications research: The past ten years. In K. E. Rosengren , L. A. Wenner, & P. Palmgreen (Eds.), Media gratifications research (pp. 11-37). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
54.
Perse, E.M. ( 1986). Soap opera viewing patterns of college students and cultivation . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 30, 175-193.
55.
Peter, J. ( 2004). Our long "return to the concept of powerful mass media": A cross-national comparative investigation of the effects of consonant media coverage. International Journal of Public Opinion Research , 16, 144-168.
56.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P.M. (2006a). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit material on the Internet. Communication Research, 33, 178-204.
57.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P.M. (2006b). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit online material and recreational attitudes toward sex . Journal of Communication, 56, 639-660.
58.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P.M. (2007). Adolescents’ exposure to a sexualized media environment and notions of women as sex objects. Sex Roles, 56, 381-395.
59.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P.M. (2008a). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit Internet material and sexual preoccupancy: A three-wave panel study. Media Psychology, 11, 207-234.
60.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P.M. (2008b). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit Internet material, sexual uncertainty, and attitudes toward uncommitted sexual exploration: Is there a link?Communication Research, 35, 579-601.
61.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P.M. (2009a). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit Internet material and notions of women as sex objects: Assessing causality and underlying mechanisms. Journal of Communication, 59, 407-433.
62.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P.M. (2009b). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit Internet material and sexual satisfaction. A longitudinal study. Human Communication Research, 35, 171-194.
63.
Potter, W.J. ( 1986). Perceived reality and the cultivation hypothesis. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 30, 159-174.
64.
Potter, W.J. ( 1988). Perceived reality in television effects research. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 32, 23-41.
65.
Preacher, K.J., & Hayes, A.F. ( 2008). Contemporary approaches to assessing mediation in communication research. In A. F. Hayes, M. D. Slater, & L. B. Snyder (Eds.), The Sage sourcebook of advanced data analysis methods for communication research (pp. 13-54). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
66.
Rivadeneyra, R., & Ward, L.M. ( 2005). From Ally McBeal to Sábado Gigante: Contributions of television viewing to the gender role attitudes of Latino adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 453-475.
67.
Romeo, K.E., & Kelley, M.A. ( 2009). Incorporating human sexuality content into a positive youth development framework: Implications for community prevention. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 1001-1009.
68.
Rose, S., & Frieze, I.H. ( 1993). Young singles contemporary dating scripts. Sex Roles, 28, 449-509.
69.
Rosenberg, M.J. ( 1956). Cognitive structure and attitudinal affect. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53, 367-372.
70.
Ross, M.W., Daneback, K., Mansson, S.-A., Tikkanen, R., & Cooper, A. ( 2003). Characteristics of men and women who complete or exit from an on-line Internet sexuality questionnaire: A study of instrument dropout biases. Journal of Sex Research, 40, 396-402.
71.
Rubin, A.M. ( 2002). The uses-and-gratifications perspective of media effects . In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 525-548). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
72.
Rubin, A.M., Perse, E.M., & Taylor, D.M. ( 1988). A methodological examination of cultivation. Communication Research, 15, 107-134.
73.
Rubin, A.M., West, D.V., & Mitchell, W.S. (2001). Differences in aggression, attitudes toward women, and distrust as reflected in popular music preferences . Media Psychology, 3, 25-42.
74.
Ruggiero, T.E. ( 2000). Uses and gratifications theory in the 21st century. Mass Communication & Society, 3, 3-37.
75.
Russell, D.W., Kahn, J.H., Spoth, R., & Altmaier, E.M. (1998). Analyzing data from experimental studies: A latent variable structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 18-29.
76.
Rutgers Nisso Group. (2005). Seks onder je 25e [Sex under 25]. Retrieved August 29, 2005 , from http://www.seksonderje25e.nl/resultaten
77.
Savin-Williams, R.C., & Diamond, L.M. ( 2004). Sex. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 189-231). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
78.
Simon, W., & Gagnon, J.H. ( 1986). Sexual scripts: Permanence and change. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 15, 97-120.
79.
Slater, D., & Elliott, W.R. ( 1982). Television’s influence on social reality. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 68, 69-79.
80.
Slater, M.D. ( 2007). Reinforcing spirals: The mutual influence of media selectivity and media effects and their impact on individual behavior and social identity . Communication Theory, 17, 281-303.
81.
Slater, M.D., Henry, K.L., Swaim, R.C., & Anderson, L.L. (2003). Violent media content and aggressiveness in adolescents: A downward spiral model. Communication Research, 30, 713-736.
82.
Stoller, R.J. ( 1979). Sexual excitement. Dynamics of erotic life. New York: Pantheon.
83.
Strasburger, V.C. ( 2004). Children, adolescents, and the media. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care, 34, 54-113.
84.
Stulhofer, A., Busko, V., & Landpriet, I. ( 2010). Pornography, sexual socialization, and satisfaction among men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 168-178.
85.
Thornburgh, D., & Lin, H.S. ( 2002). Youth, pornography, and the Internet. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
86.
Tolman, D.L., Kim, J.L., Schooler, D., & Sorsoli, C.L. ( 2007). Rethinking the associations between television viewing and adolescent sexuality development: Bringing gender into focus. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 84.e89-84.e16.
87.
Valkenburg, P.M. ( 1997). Vierkante ogen: Opgroeien met TV en PC [Squared eyes: Growing up with TV and PC]. Amsterdam: Balans.
88.
Ward, L.M., & Rivadeneyra, R. (1999). Contributions of entertainment television to adolescents’ sexual attitudes and expectations: The role of viewing amount versus viewer involvement. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 237-249.
89.
Wiederman, M.W. ( 1993). Demographic and sexual characteristics of nonresponders to sexual experience items in a national survey. Journal of Sex Research, 30, 27-35.
90.
Wolak, J., Mitchell, K., & Finkelhor, D. ( 2007). Unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography in a national sample of youth Internet users. Pediatrics, 119, 247-257.
91.
Wright, J.C., Huston, A.C., Reitz, A.L., & Piemyat, S. ( 1994). Young children’s perceptions of television reality: Determinants and developmental differences. Developmental Psychology, 30, 229-239.
92.
Zillmann, D. ( 2000). Influence of unrestrained access to erotica on adolescents’ and young adults’ disposition toward sexuality. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27S, 41-44.
93.
Zimmer-Gembeck, M.J., & Helfand, M. ( 2008). Ten years of longitudinal research on U.S. adolescent sexual behavior: Developmental correlates of sexual intercourse, and the importance of age, gender and ethnic background. Developmental Review , 28, 153-224.
