Growing up in a cross-cultural missions context exposes children to some unique psychological stressors. The present article explores the manner through which these stressors may increase vulnerability to the development of a dissociative adjustment in missionary kids (MKs) exposed to significant trauma. Five cases of dissociative disorder among adult MKs were investigated for the reported prevalence of abusive and unique missions-related stress. The case analyses indicate that dissociative disorders can be found within the adult MK population. Furthermore, exposure to some unique missions stressors appeared to be associated with the occurrence of a dissociative disorder in this sample, although determination of the nature and degree of this relationship awaits controlled research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2.
AndersonC. L., & AlexanderP. C. (1996). The relationship between attachment and dissociation in adult survivors of incest. Psychiatry, 59, 240–254.
3.
AndrewsL. A. (1995). The measurement of adult MKs’ well-being. Evangelical Missions Quarterly, 31, 418–426.
4.
AtlasJ. A., & HiottJ. (1994). Dissociative experiences in a group of adolescents with history of abuse. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 121–122.
5.
BernsteinE. M., & PutnamF. W. (1986). Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 172, 727–735.
6.
BraunB. G., & SachsR. G. (1985). The development of multiple personality disorder: Predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors. In KluftR. P. (Ed.), Childhood antecedents of multiple personality (pp. 37–64). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
7.
CarlsonE. B., & PutnamF. W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experiences Scale. Dissociation, 6, 16–27.
8.
CoonsP. M. (1994a). Confirmation of childhood abuse in child and adolescent cases of multiple personality disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 461–464.
9.
CoonsP. M. (1994b). Reports of satanic ritual abuse: Further implications about pseudomemories. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 1376–1378.
10.
CoonsP. M., & FinlayG. (1990). Factitious disorder (Munchausen type) involving allegations of ritual satanic abuse: A case report. Dissociation, 3, 177–178.
11.
CoonsP. M., & MilsteinV. (1986). Psychosexual disturbances in multiple personality: Characteristics, etiology, and treatment. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 106–110.
12.
DellP. F., & EisenhowerJ. W. (1990). Adolescent multiple personality disorder: A preliminary study of eleven cases. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 359–366.
13.
FaganJ., & McMahonP. P. (1984). Incipient multiple personality in children: Four cases. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 172, 26–36.
14.
FergusonL. N., & FergusonT. (1994, March). Domestic violence and the MK experience. Paper presented at the convention of the Christian Association for Psychological Studies, San Antonio, TX.
15.
GardnerL. M. (1992). Crisis intervention in the mission community. In O'DonnellK. (Ed.), Missionary care: Counting the cost for world evangelization (pp. 136–152). Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.
16.
HerrmannC. (1977). Foundational factors of trust and autonomy influencing the identity-formation of the multicultural life-styled MK. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.
17.
HornsteinN. L., & PutnamF. W. (1992). Clinical phenomenology of child and adolescent dissociative disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1077–1085.
18.
KelloggM. E., & HunterW. F. (1993). Sexual immorality in the missions community: Overtones of incest?Journal of Psychology and Theology, 21, 45–53.
19.
KempK., GilbertsonA. D., & ToremM. S. (1988). The differential diagnosis of multiple personality disorder from borderline personality disorder. Dissociation, 1, 41–46.
20.
KluftR. P. (1984). Multiple personality in childhood. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7, 121–134.
21.
KluftR. P. (1995). The confirmation and disconfirmation of memories of abuse in DID patients: A naturalistic clinical study. Dissociation, 8, 253–258.
22.
Lewis-FernandezR., & KleinmanA. (1994). Culture, personality, and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 67–71.
23.
LossM. (1983). Culture shock: Dealing with stress in cross-cultural living.Winona Lake, IN: Light and Life Press.
24.
MannR. J., & SandersS. (1994). Child dissociation and the context. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 373–388.
25.
MarmerC. R., WeissD. S., MetzlerT. J., & DelucchiK. (1996). Characteristics of emergency services personnel related to peri-traumatic dissociation during critical incident exposure. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(Supplement), 94–102.
26.
MarmerS. S. (1991). Multiple personality disorder: A psychoanalytic perspective. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14, 677–684.
27.
MarmerS. S., & FinkD. (1994). Rethinking the comparison of borderline personality disorder and multiple personality disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17, 743–771.
28.
MiersmaP. (1993). Integrative inquiry: Understanding missionary stress from the perspective of a combat-related stress theory. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 21, 93–101.
29.
O'DonnellK., & O'DonnellM. L. (1992). Understanding and managing stress. In O'DonnellK. (Ed.), Missionary care: Counting the cost for world evangelization (pp. 110–122). Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.
30.
ParisJ. (1996). Cultural factors in the emergence of borderline pathology. Psychiatry, 59, 185–192.
31.
PetersonG. (1991). Children coping with trauma: Diagnosis of “dissociation identity disorder.”Dissociation, 4, 152–164.
32.
PollockD. (1997). What about the missionary kids and attrition? In TaylorW. D. (Ed.), Too valuable to lose: Exploring the causes and cures of missionary attrition (pp. 303–312). Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.
33.
PutnamF. W. (1989). Diagnosis and treatment of multiple personality disorder.New York: Guilford Press.
34.
PutnamF. W. (1991). Dissociative disorders in children and adolescents: A development perspective. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14, 519–531.
35.
PutnamF. W. (1993). Dissociative disorders in children: Behavioral profiles and problems. Child Abuse & Neglect, 17, 39–45.
36.
RichardsonJ. (1992). Psychopathology in missionary personnel. In O'DonnellK. (Ed.), Missionary care: Counting the cost for world evangelization (pp. 89–109). Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library.
37.
RosikC. H. (1992). Multiple personality disorder: An introduction for pastoral counselors. Journal of Pastoral Care, 46, 291–298.
38.
RosikC. H. (1995). The misdiagnosis of multiple personality disorder by Christian counselors: Vulnerabilities and safeguards. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 23, 75–88.
39.
WeirI. K., & WheatcroftM. S. (1995). Allegations of children's involvement in ritual sexual abuse: Clinical experience of 20 cases. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19, 491–505.
40.
WrobbelK. A., & PlueddemannJ. E. (1990). Psychosocial development in adult missionary kids. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 18, 363–374.
41.
Van RekenR. E. (1987, October). Possible long-term implications of repetitive cycles of separation and loss during childhood on adult missionary kids (AMKS). Paper presented at the convention of the Christian Association for Psychological Studies, Lancaster, PA.
