Constructs regarding attachment to God and differentiation of self (DoS) have a robust foundation in the literature; however, studies regarding other cultures, specifically, second-generation Christian Korean Americans (SGCKAs), are limited. This study examined attachment to God, individualism, collectivism, and DoS in SGCKAs. Secure attachment with God statistically significantly predicted DoS scores in SGCKAs, R2 = .087, F(1,143) = 13.704, p < .001. Statistically significant differences on horizontal/individualism scores when compared based on attachment to God categories also existed. Furthermore, statistically significant differences existed on DoS scores when compared based on secure/insecure attachment to God categories. Implications for the church, mental health professionals, counselor educators, and the Korean American community are discussed.
AinsworthM. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709–716.
2.
AinsworthM. D. S.BleharM. C.WatersE.WallS. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Lawrence Erlbaum.
3.
AlumkalA. W. (2001). Being Korean, being Christian: Particularism and universalism in a second generation congregation. In KwonH. Y.KimK. C.WarnerR. S. (Eds.), Korean Americans and their religion: Pilgrims and missionaries from a different shores (pp. 181–191). Pennsylvania State University Press.
4.
BalswickJ. O.KingP. E.ReimerK. S. (2005). The reciprocating self: Human development in theological perspective. InterVarsity Press.
5.
BalswickJ. O.KingP. E.ReimerK. S. (2016). The reciprocating self: Human development in theological perspective, 2e. InterVarsity Press.
6.
BowenM. (1976). Theory in the practice of psychotherapy. In Guerin JrP. J. (Ed.), Family therapy: Theory and practice (pp. 42–90). Gardner Press.
7.
BowenM. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. Aronson.
8.
BowlbyJ. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). Basic Books. (Original work published 1969)
9.
ChanS. (1991). Asian Americans: An interpretive history. Twayne Publishers.
10.
ChongK. H. (1998). What it means to be Christian: The role of religion in the construction of ethnic identity and boundary among second-generation Korean-Americans. Sociology of Religion, 59(3), 259–286. https://doi.org/10.2307/3711911
11.
ChunS. C. (2002). Christian religiosity: A force for assimilation and/or ethnicity? Generational comparison of the impact of Christian religiosity on assimilation and ethnicity among Korean Americans [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Notre Dame.
12.
ChungH.GaleJ. (2009). Family functioning and self-differentiation: A cross-cultural examination. Contemporary Family Therapy, 31, 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-008-9080-4
13.
CohenJ. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
14.
CozmaI. (2011). How are individualism and collectivism measured. Romanian Journal of Applied Psychology, 13(1), 11–17.
15.
DeCosterJ.GallucciM.IselinA. M. R. (2011). Best practices for using median splits, artificial categorization, and their continuous alternatives. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 2(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.008310
16.
DueckA.ReimerK. (2009). A peaceable psychology: Christian therapy in a world of many cultures (1st ed.). Brazos Press.
17.
EntwistleD. N. (2004). Shedding light on theophostic ministry 1: Practice issues. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 32(1), 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164710403200103
18.
ErdemG.SafiO. A. (2018). The cultural lens approach to Bowen family systems theory: Contributions of family change theory. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(2), 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12258
19.
GranqvistP.KirkpatrickL. A. (2008). Attachment and religious representations of behavior. In CassidyJ.ShaverP. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical application (pp. 906–933). The Guilford Press.
20.
GrenzS. J. (2000). Theology for the community of god. Eerdmans.
21.
GuntonC. (1993). The one, the three and the many: God, creating and the culture of modernity. Cambridge University Press.
22.
GushueG. V.ConstantineM. G. (2003). Examining individualism, collectivism, and self-differentiation in African American college women. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 25(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.25.1.hagbhguehtb9xkah
23.
HathawayW. L. (2009). Clinical use of explicit religious approaches: Christian role integration issues. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 28(2), 105–112.
24.
HolemanV. T. (2012). Theology for better counseling: Trinitarian reflections for healing and formation. InterVarsity Press.
25.
HungA. H. (2006). The concept of differentiated oneness and implications for Asian American families. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 25, 226–239.
26.
HurhW. M.KimK. C. (1990). Religious participation of Korean immigrants in the United States. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.2307/1387028
27.
JangY.YoonH.ParkN. S.ChiribogaD. A. (2016). Health vulnerability of immigrants with limited English proficiency: A study of older Korean Americans. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 64(7), 1498–1502. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.14199
28.
JankowskiP. J.SandageS. J. (2012). Spiritual dwelling and well-being: The mediating role of differentiation of self in a sample of distressed adults. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 15, 417–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2011.579592
29.
JankowskiP. J.SandageS. J. (2014). Attachment to God and humility: Indirect effect and conditional effects models. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 42(1), 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711404200108
KangS. S. (2002). The socioculturally constructed multivoiced self as a framework for Christian education of second-generation Korean American young adults. Religious Education, 97(1), 81–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/003440802753595276
32.
KassJ. D.LennoxS. (2005). Emerging models of spiritual development: A foundation for mature, moral, and health-promoting behavior. In MillerW. R.DelaneyH. D. (Eds.), Judeo-Christian perspectives on psychology: Human nature, motivation, and change (pp. 185–204). American Psychological Association.
33.
KerrM.BowenM. (1988). Family evaluation. Norton.
34.
KimH.ProutyA. M.SmithD. B.KoM.WetchlerJ. L.OhJ. (2015). Differentiation and healthy family functioning of Koreans in South Korea, South Koreans in the United States, and White Americans. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 41(1), 72–85. https://doi-org.elibrary.huntington.edu/10.1111/jmft.12049
35.
KimC. Y.KimS.BlumbergF.ChoJ. (2017). Validation of the Korean Attachment to God Inventory. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 9(Suppl. 1), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000115
36.
KimJ. E.ParkS. S.LaA.ChangJ.ZaneN. (2016). Counseling services for Asian, Latino/A, and white American students: Initial severity, session attendance, and outcome. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22(3), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000069
37.
KimM.ParkI. J. K. (2011). Testing the moderating effect of parent—Adolescent communication on the acculturation gap—Distress relation in Korean American families. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 40(12), 1661–1673.
KimS. (2010). A faith of our own: Second-generation spirituality in Korean American churches. Rutgers University Press.
40.
KohM. S.ShinS.ReevesK. C. (2015). Voices of culturally and linguistically diverse parents: The case of Korean-American parents. Multicultural Learning and Teaching, 10(1), 7–30. https://doi.org/10.1515/mlt-2012-0007
41.
LeeH.JohnsonR. W. (2017). Assessing the psychometric properties of the Differentiation of Self Inventory-Revised for Asian-American bicultural adults. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 45(1), 51–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2016.1232611
42.
LeeJ. Y. (1995). Marginality: The key to multicultural theology. Fortress Press.
43.
LeeS. H. (1998). Bowen’s differentiation of self: It application to Korean families. Korean Journal of Family Therapy, 6, 151–176.
44.
MajerusB. D.SandageS. J. (2010). Differentiation of self and Christian spiritual maturity: Social science and theological integration. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 38(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711003800104
45.
McCulloughM. E.WilloughbyL. B. (2009). Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: Associations, explanations, and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 69–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014213
46.
McGoldrickM.PearceJ. K.GiordanoJ. (2005). Ethnicity and family therapy (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.
47.
MinerM. H. (2007). Back to the basics in attachment to God: Revisiting theory in light of theology. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 35(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164710703500202
48.
MonroeN.JankowskiP. J. (2016). The effectiveness of a prayer intervention in promoting change in perceived attachment to God, positive affect, and psychological distress. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 3(4), 237–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/scp0000117
49.
MundfromD. J.PerrettJ. J.SchafferJ.PicconeA.RoozeboomM. (2006). Bonferroni adjustments in tests for regression coefficients. Multiple Linear Regression Viewpoints, 32, 1–6.
50.
NohH. K.ChowN. (2019). Differentiation of self in Asian American culture: Empirical evidence and clinical applications from cultural and Christian perspectives. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 38(2), 120–126.
51.
ParkM. (2012). Filial piety and parental responsibility: An interpretive phenomenological study of family caregiving for a person with mental illness among Korean immigrants. BMC Nursing, 11(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6955-11-28
52.
ParkL. S. (2015). Contextual influences on ethnic identity formation: A case study of second generation Korean americans baby boomers in midlife. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 30(1), 87–105.
53.
RattsM. J.PedersenP. B. (2014). Counseling for multiculturalism and social justice: Integration, theory, and application (4th ed.). John Wiley.
54.
RowattW.KirkpatrickL. A. (2002). Two dimensions of attachment to God and their relation to affect, religiosity, and personality constructs. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41(4), 637–651. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.00143
55.
RumbautR. (1994). The crucible within: Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and segmented assimilation among children of immigrants. International Migration Review, 28, 748–794. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791839402800407
56.
SandageS. J.CrabtreeS. (2012). Spiritual pathology and religious coping as predictors of forgiveness. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 15(7), 689–707. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2011.613806
57.
SandageS. J.HardenM. G. (2011). Relational spirituality, differentiation of self, and virtue as predictors of intercultural development. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 14(8), 819–838. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2010.527932
58.
SandageS. J.JankowskiP. J. (2010). Forgiveness, spiritual instability, mental health symptoms, and well-being: Mediator effects of differentiation of self. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2(3), 168–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019124
59.
SandageS. J.JankowskiP. J.LinkD. C. (2010). Quest and spiritual development moderated by spiritual transformation. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 38(1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711003800102
60.
SandageS. J.JensenM. L. (2013). Relational spiritual formation. Reflective Practice: Formation and Supervision in Ministry, 33, 95–109.
61.
SandageS. J.MorganJ. (2014). Hope and positive religious coping as predictors of social justice commitment. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 17(6), 557–567. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2013.864266
62.
SandageS. J.WilliamsonI. (2010). Relational spirituality and dispositional forgiveness: A structural equations model. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 38(4), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711003800403
63.
ShultsF. L.SandageS. J. (2006). Transforming spirituality: Integrating theology and psychology. Baker Academic.
64.
SinghA. A.HofsessC. D.BoyerE. M.KwongA.LauA. S.McLainM.HagginsK. L. (2010). Social justice and counseling psychology: Listening to the voices of doctoral trainees. The Counseling Psychologist, 38(6), 766–795.
65.
SkowronE. A.DendyA. K. (2004). Differentiation of self and attachment in adulthood: Relational correlates of effortful control. Contemporary Family Therapy, 26(3), 337–357. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:coft.0000037919.63750.9d
66.
SkowronE. A.FriedlanderM. L. (1998). The Differentiation of Self Inventory: Development and initial validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45(3), 235–224.
67.
SkowronE. A.HolmesS. E.SabatelliR. M. (2003). Deconstructing differentiation: Self regulation, interdependent relating, and well-being in adulthood. Contemporary Family Therapy, 25, 111–129. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022514306491
68.
SkowronE. A.SchmittT. A. (2003). Assessing interpersonal fusion: Reliability and validity of a new DSI fusion with others subscale. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 29(2), 209–222.
69.
SungK. (2000). An Asian perspective on aging east and west: Filial piety and changing families. In BengstonV. L.KimK.MyersG. C.EunK. (Eds.), Aging in east and west: Families, states, and the elderly (pp. 41–56). Springer Publishing.
70.
TomlinsonJ.GlennE. S.PaineD. R.SandageS. J. (2016). What is the “relational” in relational spirituality? A review of definitions and research directions. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 18(1), 55–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/19349637.2015.1066736
71.
TriandisH. C. (1995). Individualism & collectivism. Westview Press.
72.
TriandisH. C.GelfandM. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.118
73.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Census 2000 summary file 2 (SF 2) 100-percent data. U.S. Department of Commerce. http://www.census.gov/
74.
VolfM. (1996). Exclusion and embrace: A theological exploration of identity, otherness, and reconciliation. Abingdon Press.
75.
WilderE. J.GarzonF.JohnsonE. (2020). A Christian multi-modal approach to therapy utilizing inner healing prayer: The life model. Association of Psychology and Christianity, 39(1), 49–64.
76.
WilliamsonI. T.SandageS. J. (2009). Longitudinal analyses of religious and spiritual development among seminary students. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 12(8), 787–801. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670902956604
77.
YingY. W.HanM. (2007). The longitudinal effect of intergenerational gap in acculturation on conflict and mental health in Southeast Asian American adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(1), 61–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.1.61
78.
YooG. J.KimB. W. (2010). Remembering sacrifices: Attitude and beliefs among second-generation Korean Americans regarding family support. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 25(2), 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-010-9116-8
