Forgiveness interventions have not been adapted for children, couples, families, and also specifically with Christians. Conceptualization and theorizing have lagged empirical studies. We use a stress-and-coping conceptualization of forgiveness to provide a framework for understanding forgiveness in family context, especially with Christians. Although several evidence-based interventions to promote forgiveness have been developed, few have targeted children, early adolescents, parents, families, and Christians. However, most will likely resonate with Christian beliefs and values and can be adapted to Christian families. More target high school adolescents and couples. Most are adaptations of (a) Enright's process model of forgiveness, (b) Worthington's emotional forgiveness through the REACH Forgiveness program, (c) DiBlasio's Decision-based model, and (d) Worthing-ton's Forgiveness and Reconciliation through Experiencing Empathy—FREE—model. Such interventions need to be manualized and studied empirically to determine their efficacy in family context.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
** AlvaroJ. A. (2001). An interpersonal forgiveness and reconciliation intervention: The effect on marital intimacy (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3314350).
2.
BaskinT. W., & EnrightR. D. (2004). Intervention studies in forgiveness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling and Development, 82, 79–90.
3.
BattleC. L., & MillerI. W. (2005). Families and forgiveness. In WorthingtonEverett L.Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 227–241). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
4.
*BeckS. I. (2005). Efficacy of a forgiveness group intervention for aggressive victims (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3185675).
5.
**BurchardG.A., YarhouseM.A., WorthingtonE.L.Jr., BerryJ.W., KillianM., & CanterD.E. (2003). A study of two marital enrichment programs and couples’ quality of life. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 31, 240–252.
6.
CheongR., & DiBlasioF.A. (2007). Christ-like love and forgiveness: A biblical foundation for counseling practice. Journal of Psychology and Christianity26, 14–25.
7.
** CoyleC. T., & EnrightR. D. (1997). Forgiveness intervention with post-abortion men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 1042–1045.
8.
DavisD. E., WorthingtonE. L.Jr., & HookJ. N. (2010). Meta-analytic review of research on forgiveness and religion/spirituality. Unpublished manuscript, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond.
9.
DenhamS. A., NealK., WilsonB. J., PickeringS., & BoyatzisC. J. (2005). Emotional development in children: Emerging evidence. In WorthingtonE. L.Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 127–142). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
10.
DiBlasioF.A. (1998). The use of decision-based forgiveness intervention within intergenerational family therapy. Journal of Family Therapy, 20, 77–94.
11.
DiBlasioF.A. (2010). Christ-like forgiveness in marital counseling: A clinical follow-up of two empirical studies. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 29, 4, 291.
12.
DiBlasioF. A., & BendaB. B. (2002). The effect of forgiveness treatment on self-esteem of spouses: Initial experimental results. Marriage and Family: A Christian Journal, 5, 511–523.
13.
DiBlasioF. A., & BendaB. B. (2008). Forgiveness intervention with married couples: Two empirical analyses. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 27, 150–158.
14.
DiBlasioF. A., WorthingtonE. L.Jr., & JenningsD. J.II (2010). Forgiveness in children, adolescents, and families: Spiritual and religiously tailored interventions. In WalkerD., & HathawayW. (Eds.), Spiritually-oriented interventions in child and adolescent psychotherapy. Manuscript submitted for edited book, which is being compiled., Baltimore, MD, University of Maryland.
15.
EnrightR. D., & FitzgibbonsR. (2000). Helping clients forgive.Washington, D.C.: APA Books.
16.
FreedmanS. R., EnrightR. D., & KnutsonJ. (2005). A progress report on the process model of forgiveness. In WorthingtonEverett L.Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 393–406). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
17.
* FreedmanS. R., & KnuppA. (2003). The impact of forgiveness on adolescent adjustment to parental divorce. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 39, 135–167.
18.
* GambaroM. E. (2002). School-based forgiveness education in the management of trait anger in early adolescents (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3072817).
19.
*GassinE. A. (1995). Social cognition and forgiveness in adolescent romance: An intervention study (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 9526710).
20.
**GordonK. C., BaucomD. H., & SnyderD. K. (2004). An integrative intervention for promoting recovery from extramarital affairs. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 30, 213–231.
21.
GottmanJ.M., KatzF.L., & HoovenC. (1996). Meta-emotion: How families communicate emotionally.New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
22.
** GreenbergL. J., WarwarS. H., & MalcolmW. M. (2008). Differential effects of emotion-focused therapy and psychoeducation in facilitating forgiveness and letting go of emotional injuries. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55, 185–196.
23.
*HartK. E., & ShapiroD. A. (2002, August). Secular and spiritual forgiveness interventions for recovering alcoholics harboring grudges. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association. Chicago, IL.
24.
*Hepp-DaxS. H. (1996). Forgiveness as an educational goal with fifth-grade inner-city children (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 9708250).
25.
*HuiE. K. P., & ChauT. S. (2009). The impact of a forgiveness intervention with Hong Kong Chinese children hurt in interpersonal relationships. British Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 37, 141–156.
26.
*HuiE. K. P., & HoD. K. Y. (2004). Forgiveness in the context of developmental guidance: Implementation and evaluation. British Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 32, 477–492.
27.
*JacksonR. E. (1999). Reducing shame through forgiveness and empathy: A group therapy approach to promoting prosocial behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Fuller Theological Seminary.
28.
JonesL.G. (1995). Embodying forgiveness: A theological analysis.Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans.
29.
**KeiferR. P., WorthingtonE. L.Jr., MyersB. J., KliewerW. L., BerryJ. W., DavisD. E., KilgourJ. M.Jr., MillerA. J., Van TongerenD. R., & HunterJ. L. (2010). Training parents in forgiving and reconciling. American Journal of Family Therapy, 38, 32–49.
30.
* KlattJ. (2008). Testing a forgiveness intervention to treat aggression among adolescents in a type 1 correctional facility: A pilot study (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3314350).
31.
KohlbergL. (1984). Essays on moral development: Vol. 2. The psychology of moral development.New York: Harper.
32.
** KnutsonJ. A. G. (2003). Strengthening marriages through the practice of forgiveness (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3089567).
33.
***LamptonC., OliverG., WorthingtonE. L.Jr., & BerryJ. W. (2005). Helping Christian college students become more forgiving: An intervention study to promote forgiveness as part of a program to shape Christian character. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 33, 278–290.
34.
MalcomW.M., & GreenbergL.S. (2000). Forgiveness as a process of change in individual psychotherapy. In McCulloughM. E., PargamentK. I., & ThoresenC. E. (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 179–202). New York: Guilford Press.
35.
MartyM. E. (1998). The ethos of Christian forgiveness. In WorthingtonE.L.Jr. (Ed.), Dimensions of forgiveness: Psychological research and theological perspectives (pp. 9–28). Philadelphia: The Templeton Foundation Press.
36.
MischelW. (1973). Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychological Review, 80, 252–283.
37.
PargamentK. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice.New York: Guilford.
38.
* ParkJ. (2003). Validating the effectiveness of a forgiveness intervention program for adolescent female aggressive victims in Korea (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3089613).
39.
*PerezJ. (2007). A forgiveness protocol for adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders: A pilot study (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3282918).
40.
**RipleyJ. S., & WorthingtonE. L.Jr. (2002). Hope-focused and forgiveness group interventions to promote marital enrichment. Journal of Counseling and Development, 80, 452–463.
41.
***RyeM. S., & PargamentK. I. (2002). Forgiveness and romantic relationships in college: Can it heal the wounded heart?Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 419–441.
42.
RyeM.S., PargamentK.I., AliM.A., BeckG.L., DorffE.N., HalliseyC., NarayananV., & WilliamsJ.G. (2000). Religious perspectives on forgiveness. In McCulloughM.E., PargamentK.I., ThoresenC.E. (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 17–40). New York: Guilford Press.
43.
***RyeM. S., PargamentK. I., PanW., YinglingD. W., ShogrenK. A., & ItoM. (2005). Can group interventions facilitate forgiveness of an ex-spouse? A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 880–892.
44.
**SellsJ. N., GiordanoF. G., & KingL. (2002). A pilot study in marital group therapy: Process and outcome. Family Journal, 10, 156–166.
45.
*SimJ. P. (2003). A forgiveness protocol for externalizing adolescents: Efficacy and religious commitment (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3196478).
46.
SmedesL.B. (1984). Forgive and forget: Healing the hurts we don't deserve.NY: Harper & Row.
47.
***StrattonS. P., DeanJ. B., NoonemanA. J., BodeR. A., & WorthingtonE. L.Jr. (2008). Forgiveness interventions as spiritual development strategies: Workshop training, expressive writing about forgiveness, and retested controls. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 27, 347–357.
48.
** VaughanL. (2001). The relationship between marital satisfaction levels associated with participation in the FREE (Forgiveness and Reconciliation through Experiencing Empathy) and hope-focused marital enrichment program (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3004950).
49.
WadeN. G., & WorthingtonE. L.Jr. (2005). In search of a common core: A content analysis of interventions to promote forgiveness. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42, 160–177.
50.
WadeN. G., WorthingtonE. L.Jr., & MeyerJ. (2005). But do they really work? Meta-analysis of group interventions to promote forgiveness. In WorthingtonEverett L.Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 423–440). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
51.
* WilliamsE., JohnsonJ. L., & BottC. A. (2008). Evaluation of a program for reduction of childhood aggression. Psychological Reports, 103, 347–357.
52.
WorthingtonE. L.Jr. (2003). Forgiving and reconciling: Bridges to wholeness and hope.Downer's Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
53.
WorthingtonE. L.Jr. (2006a). Forgiveness and reconciliation: Theory and Application.New York: Brunner-Routledge.
54.
WorthingtonE. L.Jr. (2006b). The development of forgiveness. In DowlingE. M., & ScarletteW. G. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of religious and spiritual development in children and adolescence (pp. 165–167). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
55.
WorthingtonE. L.Jr. (2009). A just forgiveness: Responsible healing without excusing injustice.Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
56.
WorthingtonE. L.Jr., & DiBlasioF. A. (1990). Promoting mutual forgiveness within the fractured relationship. Psychotherapy, 27, 219–223.
57.
WorthingtonE. L.Jr., HookJ. N., DavisD. E., McDanielM. A. (in press). Religion and spirituality. In NorcrossJohn C. (Ed.), Relationships that work, 2nd ed. (pp.). New York: Oxford University Press, in press.
58.
WorthingtonE. L.Jr., LernerA. J., SharpC. B., & SharpJ. (2006). Interpersonal forgiveness as an example of loving one's enemies. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 34, 32–42.
59.
*WorthingtonE. L.Jr., HunterJ. L., SharpC. B., HookJ. N., Van TongerenD. R., DavisD. E., MillerA. J., GingrichF. C., SandageS. J., LaoE., BubodL., & Monforte-MiltonM. M. (2010). A psychoeducational intervention to promote forgiveness in Christians in the Philippines. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 32(1), 75–93.
