Alcohol,breast cancer,and causal inference: where ethics meets epidemiology

Alcohol and cancer. Lancet 1990; 335: 634–635.

Alcohol consumption and breast cancer. Nutr Rev 1988; 46: 9–10.

Arras JD. Getting down to cases: The revival of casuistry in bioethics. J Med Philos 1991; 16: 29–51.

Bankowski Z Bryant JH Last GM (eds). Ethics and Epidemiology: International Guidelines. Proceedings of the 25th CIOMS Conference 7–9 November 1990. Geneva: CIOMS; 1991; 137–142.

Beauchamp TL Childress JF (eds). Principles of Biomedical Ethics. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford, 1983.

Beauchamp TL Cook RR Fayerweather WE Raabe GK Thar WE Cowles SR , and Spivey GH. Ethical guidelines for epidemiologists. J Clin Epidemiol 1991;44 (Suppl. 1):151S-169S.

Blot WJ. Alcohol and cancer. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 21195–21235.

Breslow NE and Enstrom JE. Geographic correlations between cancer mortality rates and alcohol-tobacco consumption in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974; 53: 631–639.

Byers T. Diet and cancer: Any progress in the interim? Cancer 1988; 62: 1713–1724.

Byers TE and Williamson DF. Diet, alcohol, body size and the prevention of breast cancer. Dev Oncol 1991; 62: 113–131.

Chu SY. Alcohol and breast cancer: Review and recommendations. In: DeVita VT Hellman S Rosenberg SA , (eds). Cancer Prevention. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1989; 1–7.

Clouser KD and Gert B. A critique of principlism. J Med Philos 1990; 15: 219–236.

Coughlin SS and Beauchamp TL. Ethics, scientific validity, and the design of epidemiologic studies. Epidemiol 1992; 3: 343–347.

Does alcohol cause breast cancer? (editorial). Lancet 1985;i: 1311–1312.

Fayerweather WE Higginson J , and Beauchamp TL. Ethics in epidemiology. J Clin Epidemiol 1991; 44: Supplement 1.

Feinstein AR. Scientific standards in epidemiologic studies of the menace of daily life. Science 1988; 242: 1257–1263.

Foxman B. Epidemiologists and public health policy. J Clin Epidemiol 1989; 42: 1107–1109.

Graham S. Alcohol and breast cancer (editorial). N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 1211–1213.

Hiatt RA. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer. Med Oncol Tumor Pharmacother 1990; 7: 143–151.

Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med 1965; 58: 295–300.

Howe G Rohan T Decarli A Iseovich J et al. The association between alcohol and breast cancer risk: Evidence from the combined analysis of six dietary case-control studies. Int J Cancer 1991; 47: 707–710.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Alcohol Drinking. Lyon, France: IARC, WHO, 1988:44: 222–32, 256.

International Epidemiological Associations Ethics Guidelines. In: American Public Health Association. Epidemiology Section Newsletter. Winter 1990.

Jonsen AR. Casuistry as methodology in clinical ethics. Theor Med 1991; 12: 295–307.

Jonsen AR and Toulmin S (eds). The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

Kelsey JL and Gammon MD. The epidemiology of breast cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 1991; 41: 146–165.

King ML , (ed). Strength to Love. New York: Harper & Row, 1963;4.

Krieger N and Lashof JC. AIDS policy analysis, and the electorate: The role of schools of public health. Am J Public Health 1988; 78: 411–415.

Kritchevsky D. Nutrition and breast cancer. Cancer 1990; 66: 1321–1325.

Lappe M. Ethics and public health. In: Last JM (ed). Public Health and Preventive Medicine, 12th ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1986: 1867–1877.

Longnecker MP Berlin JA Orza MJ et al. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption in relation to risk of breast cancer. JAMA 1988; 260: 652–656.

Lowenfels AB and Zevola SA. Alcohol and breast cancer: An overview. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1989; 13: 109–111.

Lustig B. The method of “principlism”: A critique of the critique. J Med Philos 1992; 17: 487–510.

McCullough LB. Methodological concerns in bioethics. J Med Philos 1986; 11: 17–37.

Miller BA Ries LAG Hankey BF Kosary CL , and Edwards BK (eds). Cancer Statistics Review: 1973–1989 Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute, 1992. (NIH publication no. 92–2789.)

Plant ML. Alcohol and breast cancer: A review. Int J Addict 1992; 27: 107–128.

Rohan TE and Bain CJ. Diet in the etiology of breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1987; 9: 120–145.

Rosenberg L Metzger LS , and Palmer JR. Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer: A review of the epidemiologic evidence. Epidemiol Rev 1993; 15: 133–144.

Rothman KJ and Poole C. Science and policy making. Am J Public Health 1985; 75: 340–341.

Schlesselman JJ. “Proof” of cause and effect in epidemiologic studies: Criteria for judgment. Prev Med 1987; 16: 195–210.

Skegg DCG. Alcohol, coffee, fat, and breast cancer. Br Med J 1987; 295: 1011–1012.

Stampfer MJ Colditz GA , and Willett WC. Alcohol intake and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Comp Therapy 1988; 14: 8–15.

Steinberg J and Goodwin PJ. Alcohol and breast cancer risk—putting the current controversy into perspective. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1991; 19: 221–231.

Stoll BA. Breast cancer prevention: Approaches and prospects. Dev Oncol 1991; 62: 229–235.

Surgeon General, Advisory Committee of the USPHS: Smoking and Health. Washington, DC: Public Health Service, 1964. (PHS publication no. 1103.)

Susser M. Criteria of judgment. In: Susser M (ed). Causal Thinking in the Health Sciences: Concepts and Strategies in Epidemiology. New York: Oxford, 1973; 140–162.

Susser M. Judgment and causal inference: Criteria in epidemiologic studies. Am J Epidemiol 1977; 105: 1–15.

Toulmin S. The tyranny of principles. Hastings Cent Rep 1981; 3: 12–14.

Weed DL. Causal criteria and Popperian refutation. In: Rothman KJ (ed). Causal Inference. Chestnut Hill, MA: ERI, 1988; 15–32.

Weed DL. Causal inference: A matter of principle. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134: 779–780.

Weed DL. Causal and preventive inference. In: Greenwald P Kramer BS , and Weed DL , (eds). The Science and Practice of Cancer Prevention and Control. New York: Marcel-Dekker, 1994a (in press).

Weed DL. Science, ethics guidelines, and advocacy in epidemiology. Ann Epidemiol 1994b (in press).

Weed DL and Coughlin SS. Ethics in cancer prevention and control. In: Greenwald P , Kramer BS , and Weed DL (eds). The Science and Practice of Cancer Prevention and Control. New York: Marcel-Dekker, 1994 (in press).

Willett WC Stampfer MJ , and Colditz GA. Does alcohol consumption influence the risk of developing breast cancer? Two views. In: DeVita VT Hellman S , and Rosenberg SA , (eds). Important Advances in Oncology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1989; 267–281.

Wynder EL and Harris RE. Does alcohol consumption influence the risk of developing breast cancer? Two views. In: DeVita VT Hellman S , and Rosenberg SA , (eds). Important Advances in Oncology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1989, 283–293.